Undergraduate Students’ Profiles of Cognitive Load in Augmented Reality–Assisted Science Learning and Their Relation to Science Learning Self-efficacy and Behavior Patterns

Lin, Wong, Zhou, Shen, Li, Tsai · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · 2024 · science-education · 10.1007/s10763-023-10376-9 · record Lin2024-undergraduate-students-profiles-of-cognitive
tag layer · index · concepts · authors · עברית

Where this record's text came from. faceted 2026-08 by reading the locally held text (xml); every evidence string verified as an exact substring of that text before merging. method does not fit any of the suggested labels: there is no experimental manipulation and no control group, so behavioural-experiment would overstate the design. What was done is a cross-sectional questionnaire study (cognitive-load and self-efficacy scales) combined with logged behaviour analysed by lag sequential analysis, on students using an AR system the authors also built; 'survey-study' is the least misleading normalisation. The paper's stated design also invites a mechanism reading (collaborative cognitive load theory is offered to explain the Organized profile), but that explanation is proposed as a conjecture rather than tested, so claim type stays existence. A further self-positioning sentence relates the Organized profile to Yang et al. (2021) but was not included as a fourth relation to avoid padding. 2026-08-12, 2026-08-15 and 2026-08-25 schema-0.3 passes: every quote verified as an exact substring of the staged text and anchored at merge time; concept terms verified present; every edge endpoint an existing node.

How to read this page. The article itself is not reproduced here — this paper is not cleared for redistribution, so what follows is the tag layer alone. The evidence sentences are withheld with the article. The table at the foot lists every tag the record carries; each row names the facet it belongs to, and the whose words column says whether the tag records the paper's own wording or the tagger's sentence about the paper. Every tag links to each other paper in the corpus carrying it. The machine-readable edition of the same thing is the TEI file beside this one, where the tags live in standOff, and the article is at its publisher via the link below. When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.

Other fields define these differently the same word, defined another way in another discipline
working memory 4 fields · cognitive load 3 fields · self-efficacy 3 fields · statistical-significance 2 fields

Tags on this paper

Every tag the record carries, each linking to every other paper in the corpus that carries it. A tag appears here whether or not its words occur in the article — the spans below are only the ones a sentence in this paper licenses. Of the 10 concept tags on this paper, all 10 are grounded in a quoted sentence. All carry the tagger's gloss of what the term means in this paper, which is not something the article can license.

cognitive load intrinsic cognitive load extraneous cognitive load germane cognitive load working memory self-efficacy augmented reality latent profile analysis lag sequential analysis mental effort Collaborating and discussing with peers distributes the information-processing burden between students, which lowers each student's mental load and frees effort for performance The transaction costs of collaborating are themselves effortful, so heavy interaction can push cognitive processing into overload rather than relieving it cognitive load is treated as multi-dimensional, so a learner can be high on one dimension and low on another - which is why a single scale hides the types extraneous load comes from how the material was designed rather than from its difficulty, so it is the component an instructor can remove self-efficacy is proposed as the link between load and outcome: a sense of competence assists the cognitive processing itself AR adds load as well as benefit - multitasking between the virtual and real layers pulls attention off the instructions mental load behavior patterns Low Engagement profile Immersive profile profiles of cognitive load AR science learning self-efficacy perceived cognitive load learning actions AR science learning self-efficacy dimensions confirmatory factor analysis confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) Kolmogorov-Smirnov test Kolmogorov–Smirnov test Cronbach's alpha Cronbach’s alpha values MANOVA multivariate analysis of variance ANOVA Cohen's kappa (inter-rater reliability) inter-rater reliability kappa z-score (adjusted residual) Z-score (an adjusted residual value) chi-squared / model fit indices chi-squared bootstrap likelihood ratio test information criteria (AIC / adjusted BIC) and entropy Akaike information criterion, adjusted Bayesian information criterion, and higher entropy post hoc test post hoc tests latent-profile-analysis statistical-significance survey

Method, as described: survey-study

Legend

second reading	`alternatives`	an independent re-reading of a facet, recorded whether or not it agrees
relation to other work	`claim_relations`	how this paper stands to another: agrees, contradicts, extends, qualifies
claim type	`claim_type`	the shape of the claim: existence, mechanism, method, critique, prediction, null
concept edge	`concept_edges`	an asserted relation between two concepts, with the sentence asserting it
concept	`concepts`	an idea the paper works with, quoted where the paper uses it
content tag	`content_tags`	a finding, definition, quantity, statistic or variable named in the paper
contribution	`contribution`	what the paper claims to add
control	`controls`	an experiment run to eliminate a rival explanation
limitation	`limitations`	what the paper says its evidence cannot support
mechanism	`mechanisms`	how the reported effect is said to come about
method	`method`	how the paper produced its evidence
object of study	`object_of_study`	what the paper is about — the thing it investigates
phenomenon	`phenomenon`	the effect or regularity under study
research question	`research_question`	the question the paper sets itself
sense	`senses`	a distinct use of a term, quoted where the paper fixes it
transfer	`transfers`	a method or concept carried in from another field

The paper

The full text is not reproduced here. This article is not cleared for redistribution, so the page carries the tag layer only. Its evidence sentences are withheld; the grounding status remains with each tag, and the article itself is at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-023-10376-9. The reading view exists for the papers whose licence permits it.

Every tag on this page

alternatives 2 · claim_relations 6 · claim_type 1 · concept_edges 5 · concepts 10 · content_tags 59 · contribution 1 · controls 2 · limitations 5 · mechanisms 6 · method 1 · object_of_study 1 · phenomenon 1 · research_question 1 · senses 3 · transfers 2

Relations on this page carry a quotation for the claim. Where a relation was separately evidenced — and so tested against the vocabulary for its type — the row says so; none of 5 relations here carry that mark. The rest are the tagger’s reading of the sentence quoted beside them.

facet	tag	field	conf.	whose words
object_of_study	Cognitive load in undergraduates using AR for science learning, and how it relates to their self-efficacy and observed learning behaviour. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`object_of_study`		the paper's words
research_question	Do students split into distinct cognitive-load types rather than lying on one scale, and if so do those types differ in self-efficacy and in what they actually do? Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`research_question`		the paper's words
contribution	Four cognitive-load profiles - Low Engagement, Immersive, Dabbling, Organized - that differ measurably in self-efficacy and in behaviour sequences. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`contribution`		the paper's words
claim_type	existence Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_type`		the paper's words
phenomenon	cognitive load in augmented-reality science learning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`phenomenon`		the paper's words
method	survey Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: survey	`method`		the paper's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Collaborating and discussing with peers distributes the information-processing burden between students, which lowers each student's mental load and frees effort for performance	`mechanisms[0]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: The transaction costs of collaborating are themselves effortful, so heavy interaction can push cognitive processing into overload rather than relieving it	`mechanisms[1]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: cognitive load is treated as multi-dimensional, so a learner can be high on one dimension and low on another - which is why a single scale hides the types	`mechanisms[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: extraneous load comes from how the material was designed rather than from its difficulty, so it is the component an instructor can remove	`mechanisms[3]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: self-efficacy is proposed as the link between load and outcome: a sense of competence assists the cognitive processing itself	`mechanisms[4]`	0.9	the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: AR adds load as well as benefit - multitasking between the virtual and real layers pulls attention off the instructions	`mechanisms[5]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	The profiles rest on only three self-reported cognitive-load dimensions within AR-based activities Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the profiles as a description of cognitive load: they rest on AR-BASED LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND THREE TYPES OF COGNITIVE LOAD: MENTAL LOAD, MENTAL EFFORT, AND PERFORMANCE, all self-reported	`limitations[0]`		the tagger's words
limitations	Objective process measures such as eye and hand movement tracking were not collected and are needed to characterise the visual and motor behaviour behind the cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: any process-level reading: OTHER MEASURES OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES, SUCH AS EYE AND HAND MOVEMENT TRACKING, MAY NEED TO BE CONSIDERED FOR FUTURE STUDY	`limitations[1]`		the tagger's words
limitations	The literature it builds on disagrees with itself about the sign of the effect - more load has been reported as better, worse and neutral. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the prior literature this builds on, which reports every possible sign: MORE COGNITIVE LOAD MAY PERFORM BETTER (... THEES ET AL., 2020), LESS FAVORABLY (... THEES ET AL., 2020), OR WITH NO SI[gnificant difference] - the same source cited on both sides	`limitations[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	The three classical load types are stated to be an incomplete account, and the paper adopts a second framework alongside them rather than resolving the conflict. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the three-type framework itself: it is stated to be an incomplete account, and a second framework is adopted alongside it	`limitations[3]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	One cohort, one country, one task - 365 Chinese undergraduates in a single AR activity. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the generality of the profiles: 365 CHINESE UNDERGRADUATES in a single AR activity	`limitations[4]`	0.9	the tagger's words
transfers	an LSTM plus convolutional-neural-network architecture, imported to classify students' coded learning-behaviour sequences Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[0]`		the tagger's words
transfers	working memory as a capacity limit, used to define germane load and thereby to ground an instructional-design construct in a memory construct Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[1]`	1.0	the tagger's words
controls	two independent coders, with inconsistencies checked and corrected before the analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. eliminates: one coder's reading of an open response standing as the classification · outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation): held	`controls[0]`	0.85	the tagger's words
controls	inter-rater reliability reported as a kappa of 0.82 between the two teachers' analyses Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. eliminates: agreement asserted rather than measured - the kappa is the number that says how much the two codings actually coincided · outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation): held	`controls[1]`	0.85	the tagger's words
concepts	cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: cognitive load	`concepts[0]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	intrinsic cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: intrinsic cognitive load	`concepts[1]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	extraneous cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: extraneous cognitive load	`concepts[2]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	germane cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: germane cognitive load	`concepts[3]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	working memory Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: working memory	`concepts[4]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	self-efficacy Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: self-efficacy	`concepts[5]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	augmented reality Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: augmented reality	`concepts[6]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	latent profile analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: latent profile analysis	`concepts[7]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	lag sequential analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: lag sequential analysis	`concepts[8]`	1.0	the paper's words
concepts	mental effort Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: mental effort	`concepts[9]`	1.0	the paper's words
senses	cognitive load - Sweller's decomposition into three TYPES by source: intrinsic, extraneous, germane Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[0]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	cognitive load - Paas and van Merrienboer's decomposition into three DIMENSIONS of assessment: mental load, mental effort, performance Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[1]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	load - as something a learner can have more or less of, where the literature disagrees even about whether more is better Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
alternatives	method: survey Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: survey — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.	`alternatives.method`		the tagger's words
alternatives	phenomenon: heterogeneity of cognitive load across learners in augmented-reality science learning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: cognitive load in augmented-reality science learning — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.	`alternatives.phenomenon`		the tagger's words
claim_relations	extends → Thees et al. (2020) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[0]`		the tagger's words
claim_relations	replicates → Lin et al. (2020) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[1]`		the tagger's words
claim_relations	builds-on → Chin and Wang (2021) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[2]`		the tagger's words
claim_relations	builds-on → Sweller (1988), the three types of cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[3]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	builds-on → Paas and van Merrienboer (1994), cognitive load as three dimensions of assessment Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[4]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	contradicts → the assumption that one AR learning design suits all students Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[5]`	0.9	the tagger's words
concept_edges	RETRACTED (WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART) · intrinsic cognitive load —is-a→ cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. RETRACTED: WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART. The span is 'three TYPES OF cognitive load - intrinsic, extraneous…'. The compound name licenses subsumption but not which sort, and this one is classification. — strength of the relation: 1 also in: intrinsic cognitive load · cognitive load	`concept_edges[0]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	RETRACTED (WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART) · extraneous cognitive load —is-a→ cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. RETRACTED: WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART. The span is 'three TYPES OF cognitive load - intrinsic, extraneous…'. The compound name licenses subsumption but not which sort, and this one is classification. — strength of the relation: 1 also in: extraneous cognitive load · cognitive load	`concept_edges[1]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	germane cognitive load —operationalised-as→ working memory Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 1 also in: germane cognitive load · working memory	`concept_edges[2]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	extraneous cognitive load —distinct-from→ intrinsic cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 1 also in: extraneous cognitive load · intrinsic cognitive load	`concept_edges[3]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	mental effort —part-of→ cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 1 also in: mental effort · cognitive load	`concept_edges[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	latent profile analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: latent profile analysis	`content_tags.statistics[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	confirmatory factor analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: confirmatory factor analysis	`content_tags.statistics[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Kolmogorov-Smirnov test Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Kolmogorov-Smirnov test	`content_tags.statistics[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Cronbach's alpha Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Cronbach's alpha	`content_tags.statistics[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	MANOVA Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: MANOVA	`content_tags.statistics[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	ANOVA Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: ANOVA	`content_tags.statistics[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Cohen's kappa (inter-rater reliability) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Cohen's kappa (inter-rater reliability)	`content_tags.statistics[6]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	lag sequential analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: lag sequential analysis	`content_tags.statistics[7]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	z-score (adjusted residual) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: z-score (adjusted residual)	`content_tags.statistics[8]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	chi-squared / model fit indices Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: chi-squared / model fit indices	`content_tags.statistics[9]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	bootstrap likelihood ratio test Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: bootstrap likelihood ratio test	`content_tags.statistics[10]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	information criteria (AIC / adjusted BIC) and entropy Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: information criteria (AIC / adjusted BIC) and entropy	`content_tags.statistics[11]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	post hoc test Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: post hoc test	`content_tags.statistics[12]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	latent-profile-analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: latent-profile-analysis	`content_tags.statistics[13]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	anova Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: anova	`content_tags.statistics[14]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	statistical-significance Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: statistical-significance	`content_tags.statistics[15]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	Latent profile analysis of three cognitive-load dimensions sorted the undergraduates into four profiles, named Low Engagement, Immersive, Dabbling and Organized. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	The Immersive profile (100 students) combined the highest mental effort with the lowest mental load and the second-highest performance of the four profiles. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Immersive-profile students reported the highest science learning self-efficacy of any profile. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Low Engagement students scored lowest on every self-efficacy dimension measured. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Organized-profile students outscored Dabbling students specifically on conceptual understanding and higher-order cognitive skills. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Profiles whose behaviour sequences included discussing with peers, taking tests and reading feedback had significantly higher self-efficacy than profiles whose behaviour was mainly taking tests and visiting resources. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Excluding the five-profile model, AIC and adjusted BIC were lowest for the four-profile model. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[6]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Dabbling and Organized students differed significantly only on conceptual understanding and higher-order cognitive skills, not on the other four self-efficacy dimensions. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[7]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	The Organized profile achieved the highest performance of all four profiles while carrying high mental effort and only medium mental load, alongside more communicative and collaborative behaviour. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[8]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Organized and Dabbling students, though similar in mental load, differed behaviourally in that Organized students finished tasks progressively while Dabbling students re-browsed materials and retried tasks with new answers. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[9]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Latent profile analysis found four learner profiles carrying different cognitive loads. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	Immersive-profile students scored highest on science learning self-efficacy. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[11]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	Organized learners outperformed Dabbling ones on conceptual understanding and higher-order skills. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[12]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	What students actually did differed by profile, and the sequences involving social interaction and reviewing feedback went with higher self-efficacy than test-and-browse sequences. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[13]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: cognitive load	`content_tags.definitions[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	intrinsic cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: intrinsic cognitive load	`content_tags.definitions[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	extraneous cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: extraneous cognitive load	`content_tags.definitions[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	germane cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: germane cognitive load	`content_tags.definitions[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	self-efficacy Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: self-efficacy	`content_tags.definitions[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	mental load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: mental load	`content_tags.definitions[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	mental effort Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: mental effort	`content_tags.definitions[6]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Low Engagement profile Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Low Engagement profile	`content_tags.definitions[7]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Immersive profile Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Immersive profile	`content_tags.definitions[8]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: cognitive load	`content_tags.definitions[9]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	intrinsic cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: intrinsic cognitive load	`content_tags.definitions[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	extraneous cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: extraneous cognitive load	`content_tags.definitions[11]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	germane cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: germane cognitive load	`content_tags.definitions[12]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	profiles of cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: profiles of cognitive load	`content_tags.variables[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	AR science learning self-efficacy Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: AR science learning self-efficacy	`content_tags.variables[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	perceived cognitive load Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: perceived cognitive load	`content_tags.variables[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	learning actions Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: learning actions	`content_tags.variables[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	AR science learning self-efficacy dimensions Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: AR science learning self-efficacy dimensions	`content_tags.variables[5]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	365 — undergraduates who completed the questionnaires, of whom 31.5% were male Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	60,595 — coded learning behaviours entered into the behaviour-pattern analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	62.19% — share of participants falling into the Dabbling and Organized profiles combined Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	1.96 — Z-score cut-off used to declare a behavioural transition significant Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	0.92, 0.92, and 0.85 — Cronbach's alpha for the mental load, mental effort and performance subscales Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	0.82 — inter-rater reliability kappa between the two coding teachers Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	100 — students assigned to profile 2 (the Immersive profile) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[6]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	365 undergraduates — sample size for the latent profile analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[7]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	four profiles — number of latent classes recovered Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	six self-efficacy dimensions — dimensions of the AR science-learning self-efficacy measure compared across profiles Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[9]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	three dimensions — the Paas and van Merrienboer decomposition: mental load, mental effort, performance Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words

Interpretive choices

Tags that could not be placed in the text:

none — every tag was located in the text

What was deliberately not tagged, and why, is recorded per paper by the tagger. Where a paper has no such record, this page says so rather than implying that nothing was declined.