Undergraduate Students’ Profiles of Cognitive Load in Augmented Reality–Assisted Science Learning and Their Relation to Science Learning Self-efficacy and Behavior Patterns

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Undergraduate Students’ Profiles of Cognitive Load in Augmented Reality–Assisted Science Learning and Their Relation to Science Learning Self-efficacy and Behavior Patterns 2024 International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education 10.1007/s10763-023-10376-9 Lin2024-undergraduate-students-profiles-of-cognitive Lin2024-undergraduate-students-profiles-of-cognitive.txt, the project's staged copy 0568ac0a61d4c6206369d830c79025fc9f7847eb not-redistributable science-education

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0 spans located by searching the stored text for the quote's exact words, allowing any whitespace between them Cognitive load in undergraduates using AR for science learning, and how it relates to their self-efficacy and observed learning behaviour. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Do students split into distinct cognitive-load types rather than lying on one scale, and if so do those types differ in self-efficacy and in what they actually do? Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Four cognitive-load profiles - Low Engagement, Immersive, Dabbling, Organized - that differ measurably in self-efficacy and in behaviour sequences. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. existence Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. cognitive load in augmented-reality science learning Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. survey survey Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms Collaborating and discussing with peers distributes the information-processing burden between students, which lowers each student's mental load and frees effort for performance Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms The transaction costs of collaborating are themselves effortful, so heavy interaction can push cognitive processing into overload rather than relieving it Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms cognitive load is treated as multi-dimensional, so a learner can be high on one dimension and low on another - which is why a single scale hides the types Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms extraneous load comes from how the material was designed rather than from its difficulty, so it is the component an instructor can remove Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms self-efficacy is proposed as the link between load and outcome: a sense of competence assists the cognitive processing itself Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms AR adds load as well as benefit - multitasking between the virtual and real layers pulls attention off the instructions Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The profiles rest on only three self-reported cognitive-load dimensions within AR-based activities what this limits: the profiles as a description of cognitive load: they rest on AR-BASED LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND THREE TYPES OF COGNITIVE LOAD: MENTAL LOAD, MENTAL EFFORT, AND PERFORMANCE, all self-reported Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Objective process measures such as eye and hand movement tracking were not collected and are needed to characterise the visual and motor behaviour behind the cognitive load what this limits: any process-level reading: OTHER MEASURES OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES, SUCH AS EYE AND HAND MOVEMENT TRACKING, MAY NEED TO BE CONSIDERED FOR FUTURE STUDY Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The literature it builds on disagrees with itself about the sign of the effect - more load has been reported as better, worse and neutral. what this limits: the prior literature this builds on, which reports every possible sign: MORE COGNITIVE LOAD MAY PERFORM BETTER (... THEES ET AL., 2020), LESS FAVORABLY (... THEES ET AL., 2020), OR WITH NO SI[gnificant difference] - the same source cited on both sides Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The three classical load types are stated to be an incomplete account, and the paper adopts a second framework alongside them rather than resolving the conflict. what this limits: the three-type framework itself: it is stated to be an incomplete account, and a second framework is adopted alongside it Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. One cohort, one country, one task - 365 Chinese undergraduates in a single AR activity. what this limits: the generality of the profiles: 365 CHINESE UNDERGRADUATES in a single AR activity Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. an LSTM plus convolutional-neural-network architecture, imported to classify students' coded learning-behaviour sequences Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. working memory as a capacity limit, used to define germane load and thereby to ground an instructional-design construct in a memory construct Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. two independent coders, with inconsistencies checked and corrected before the analysis eliminates: one coder's reading of an open response standing as the classification · outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation): held Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. inter-rater reliability reported as a kappa of 0.82 between the two teachers' analyses eliminates: agreement asserted rather than measured - the kappa is the number that says how much the two codings actually coincided · outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation): held Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. cognitive load cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. intrinsic cognitive load intrinsic cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. extraneous cognitive load extraneous cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. germane cognitive load germane cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. working memory working memory Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. self-efficacy self-efficacy Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. augmented reality augmented reality Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. latent profile analysis latent profile analysis Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. lag sequential analysis lag sequential analysis Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mental effort mental effort Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. cognitive load - Sweller's decomposition into three TYPES by source: intrinsic, extraneous, germane Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. cognitive load - Paas and van Merrienboer's decomposition into three DIMENSIONS of assessment: mental load, mental effort, performance Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. load - as something a learner can have more or less of, where the literature disagrees even about whether more is better Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. method: survey a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: survey — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. phenomenon: heterogeneity of cognitive load across learners in augmented-reality science learning a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: cognitive load in augmented-reality science learning — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. extends → Thees et al. (2020) Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. replicates → Lin et al. (2020) Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. builds-on → Chin and Wang (2021) Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. builds-on → Sweller (1988), the three types of cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. builds-on → Paas and van Merrienboer (1994), cognitive load as three dimensions of assessment Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. contradicts → the assumption that one AR learning design suits all students Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. RETRACTED (WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART) · intrinsic cognitive load —is-a→ cognitive load intrinsic cognitive load cognitive load RETRACTED: WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART. The span is 'three TYPES OF cognitive load - intrinsic, extraneous…'. The compound name licenses subsumption but not which sort, and this one is classification. — strength of the relation: 1 Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. RETRACTED (WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART) · extraneous cognitive load —is-a→ cognitive load extraneous cognitive load cognitive load RETRACTED: WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART. The span is 'three TYPES OF cognitive load - intrinsic, extraneous…'. The compound name licenses subsumption but not which sort, and this one is classification. — strength of the relation: 1 Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. germane cognitive load —operationalised-as→ working memory germane cognitive load working memory strength of the relation: 1 Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. extraneous cognitive load —distinct-from→ intrinsic cognitive load extraneous cognitive load intrinsic cognitive load strength of the relation: 1 Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mental effort —part-of→ cognitive load mental effort cognitive load strength of the relation: 1 Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. latent profile analysis latent profile analysis Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. confirmatory factor analysis confirmatory factor analysis Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test Kolmogorov-Smirnov test Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's alpha Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. MANOVA MANOVA Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. ANOVA ANOVA Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Cohen's kappa (inter-rater reliability) Cohen's kappa (inter-rater reliability) Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. lag sequential analysis lag sequential analysis Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. z-score (adjusted residual) z-score (adjusted residual) Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. chi-squared / model fit indices chi-squared / model fit indices Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. bootstrap likelihood ratio test bootstrap likelihood ratio test Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. information criteria (AIC / adjusted BIC) and entropy information criteria (AIC / adjusted BIC) and entropy Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. post hoc test post hoc test Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. latent-profile-analysis latent-profile-analysis Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. anova anova Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. statistical-significance statistical-significance Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Latent profile analysis of three cognitive-load dimensions sorted the undergraduates into four profiles, named Low Engagement, Immersive, Dabbling and Organized. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The Immersive profile (100 students) combined the highest mental effort with the lowest mental load and the second-highest performance of the four profiles. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Immersive-profile students reported the highest science learning self-efficacy of any profile. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Low Engagement students scored lowest on every self-efficacy dimension measured. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Organized-profile students outscored Dabbling students specifically on conceptual understanding and higher-order cognitive skills. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Profiles whose behaviour sequences included discussing with peers, taking tests and reading feedback had significantly higher self-efficacy than profiles whose behaviour was mainly taking tests and visiting resources. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Excluding the five-profile model, AIC and adjusted BIC were lowest for the four-profile model. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Dabbling and Organized students differed significantly only on conceptual understanding and higher-order cognitive skills, not on the other four self-efficacy dimensions. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The Organized profile achieved the highest performance of all four profiles while carrying high mental effort and only medium mental load, alongside more communicative and collaborative behaviour. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Organized and Dabbling students, though similar in mental load, differed behaviourally in that Organized students finished tasks progressively while Dabbling students re-browsed materials and retried tasks with new answers. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Latent profile analysis found four learner profiles carrying different cognitive loads. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Immersive-profile students scored highest on science learning self-efficacy. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Organized learners outperformed Dabbling ones on conceptual understanding and higher-order skills. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. What students actually did differed by profile, and the sequences involving social interaction and reviewing feedback went with higher self-efficacy than test-and-browse sequences. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. cognitive load cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. intrinsic cognitive load intrinsic cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. extraneous cognitive load extraneous cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. germane cognitive load germane cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. self-efficacy self-efficacy Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mental load mental load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mental effort mental effort Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Low Engagement profile Low Engagement profile Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Immersive profile Immersive profile Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. cognitive load cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. intrinsic cognitive load intrinsic cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. extraneous cognitive load extraneous cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. germane cognitive load germane cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. profiles of cognitive load profiles of cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. AR science learning self-efficacy AR science learning self-efficacy Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. perceived cognitive load perceived cognitive load Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. learning actions learning actions Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. AR science learning self-efficacy dimensions AR science learning self-efficacy dimensions Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 365 — undergraduates who completed the questionnaires, of whom 31.5% were male Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 60,595 — coded learning behaviours entered into the behaviour-pattern analysis Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 62.19% — share of participants falling into the Dabbling and Organized profiles combined Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 1.96 — Z-score cut-off used to declare a behavioural transition significant Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 0.92, 0.92, and 0.85 — Cronbach's alpha for the mental load, mental effort and performance subscales Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 0.82 — inter-rater reliability kappa between the two coding teachers Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 100 — students assigned to profile 2 (the Immersive profile) Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 365 undergraduates — sample size for the latent profile analysis Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. four profiles — number of latent classes recovered Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. six self-efficacy dimensions — dimensions of the AR science-learning self-efficacy measure compared across profiles Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. three dimensions — the Paas and van Merrienboer decomposition: mental load, mental effort, performance Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution.

The full text of this article is not redistributable, so it is not included here. The evidence sentences are withheld with it; the tag layer and its grounding status remain. The article itself is at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-023-10376-9.