The Developmental Theory of the Gender Gap: Women’s and Men’s Voting Behavior in Global Perspective

The Developmental Theory of the Gender Gap: Women’s and Men’s Voting Behavior in Global Perspective Ronald Inglehart Pippa Norris

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The Developmental Theory of the Gender Gap: Women’s and Men’s Voting Behavior in Global Perspective 2000 International Political Science Review 10.1177/0192512100214007 inglehart2000-the-developmental-theory-of-the-ge inglehart2000-the-developmental-theory-of-the-ge.txt, the project's staged copy e5abc777651ed6be40884f5d6c55569e22ba0bb1 open-access political-science

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0 spans located by searching the stored text for the quote's exact words, allowing any whitespace between them mechanism Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. gender gap in voting Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. observational-study observational-study Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms Modernization converges men's and women's roles through the paid labour market, education and changed family structure, which in turn changes their political preferences Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms Value change — the spread of postmaterialist and egalitarian/feminist attitudes — pulls women's vote leftwards Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms Generational turnover: as younger cohorts replace older ones the aggregate gap keeps moving left Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. mechanisms Occupational segregation concentrates working women in low-paid and public-sector jobs, encouraging support for parties of the left Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The survey data do not cover consistent over-time trends for most of the countries compared, so the wider comparison is cross-sectional (1990s only). what this limits: the cross-national comparison: WE LACK EVIDENCE IN THE WORLD VALUES SURVEY FOR CONSISTENT TRENDS OVER TIME IN A WIDER RANGE OF SOCIETIES Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. No systematic comparative evidence exists before the 1980s, so long-term secular change has to be inferred from age-cohort differences rather than observed directly. what this limits: the long-term secular claim: WE LACK SYSTEMATIC COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE ... FROM THE ERA PRIOR TO THE 1980S, so it is inferred rather than observed Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The analysis covers only one dimension of a multidimensional phenomenon: vote choice, not partisanship, attitudes, or civic engagement. what this limits: every use of the phrase gender gap drawn from this work: THE TERM ... CONCERNS A MULTIDIMENSIONAL POLITICAL PHENOMENON, and only vote choice is measured here Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The realignment is uneven across countries and may reflect country-specific circumstances the theory does not model. what this limits: the generality of the realignment claim: THE PROCESS IS FAR FROM UNIFORM, PROBABLY REFLECTING PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES WITHIN EACH COUNTRY Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The headline realignment is explicitly not global, although the title says global perspective: the old pattern is reported as persisting in postcommunist and developing societies. what this limits: the claim that women have realigned to the left worldwide: the paper reports the modern gap in postindustrial and some West European states, and states it was not yet evident in postcommunist or developing societies Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Sympathy for feminist ideals is measured by two proxies chosen as indicators, so the construct is interpretive rather than observed. what this limits: the feminism controls in this analysis: they are confidence in the women's movement and attitudes towards abortion, described as key indicators of sympathy for feminist ideals rather than direct measures of it Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. structural controls were introduced and the gender gap re-estimated in each country eliminates: that the modern gender gap is a by-product of structural differences - education, income, labour-force participation - rather than a value shift · outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation): partial Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. traditional gender gap traditional gender gap Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. modern gender gap modern gender gap Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. World Values Surveys World Values Surveys Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. gender gap - TRADITIONAL: women voting more conservatively and participating less than men, the orthodoxy the article sets out to test Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. gender gap - MODERN: women voting to the LEFT of men, the opposite sign under the same term, reported for postindustrial societies by the 1990s Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. sympathy for feminist ideals - operationalised as two survey items: confidence in the women's movement and attitudes towards abortion Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. claim_type: mechanism a second reading reaching the same value. Recorded: mechanism — note: A BLIND second reading by the project on 2026-08-25: the record's own claim type/method/phenomenon were not looked at until every value here was written and substring-verified. Not applied - a person decides. Sampling frame: the 504 staged records carrying no alternatives block, so this never re-measures the 202. All 11 records with 130+ tags were taken as a census and 19 more spread one per discipline across 22 disciplines - the dense non-neuroscience cell is the one the 202 do not contain (inside them, 94-100% of the densest bands are neuroscience; among these 11, one is)., Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. method: comparative-survey-analysis a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: observational-study — note: A BLIND second reading by the project on 2026-08-25: the record's own claim type/method/phenomenon were not looked at until every value here was written and substring-verified. Not applied - a person decides. Sampling frame: the 504 staged records carrying no alternatives block, so this never re-measures the 202. All 11 records with 130+ tags were taken as a census and 19 more spread one per discipline across 22 disciplines - the dense non-neuroscience cell is the one the 202 do not contain (inside them, 94-100% of the densest bands are neuroscience; among these 11, one is)., Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. phenomenon: the gender gap in voting behaviour and its reversal as societies become postindustrial a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: gender gap in voting — note: A BLIND second reading by the project on 2026-08-25: the record's own claim type/method/phenomenon were not looked at until every value here was written and substring-verified. Not applied - a person decides. Sampling frame: the 504 staged records carrying no alternatives block, so this never re-measures the 202. All 11 records with 130+ tags were taken as a census and 19 more spread one per discipline across 22 disciplines - the dense non-neuroscience cell is the one the 202 do not contain (inside them, 94-100% of the densest bands are neuroscience; among these 11, one is)., Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. extends → Inglehart (1977) and Norris (1988) predictions that women's relative conservatism would disappear Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. builds-on → Studlar, McAllister and Hayes (1998) Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. traditional gender gap —contrasted-with→ modern gender gap traditional gender gap modern gender gap strength of the relation: 1 Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. ANOVA ANOVA Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. difference between group means difference between group means Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. ordinary least squares regression ordinary least squares regression Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. standardized regression coefficient standardized regression coefficient Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. correlation correlation Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. By the 1990s women in postindustrial societies voted significantly further to the left than men, and the difference survived a battery of social controls. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The leftward shift did not appear in postcommunist or developing societies, where women were still voting further right than men in the mid-1990s. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Averaged by type of society, the voting gap was +.10 (women left) in advanced industrialized democracies, -.08 in postcommunist societies and -.14 in developing societies (women right). Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. In postindustrial societies the modern gender gap survives structural controls but shrinks once cultural attitudes are added to the model. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The gap is therefore attributed mainly to women's and men's differing value orientations — postmaterialism and support for the women's movement — rather than to differences in their lifestyles. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Within established democracies the gap reverses across age groups: in the youngest cohort women are far to the left of men, while among the over-65s women are more conservative than men. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. Country by country, the modern gap held up under structural controls in the United States, France and Germany, but only the United States kept a significant gap after cultural attitudes were controlled. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. By the 1990s women were significantly more right wing than men in only six of 57 nations. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. In Europe the mean female ideological position moved from 5.61 in 1973 to 5.20 in 1999. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. The American gender gap is not exceptional in size; larger ideological gaps appear in Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark. Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. traditional gender gap traditional gender gap Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. modern gender gap modern gender gap Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. developmental theory of the gender gap developmental theory of the gender gap Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. gender dealignment gender dealignment Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. ideological gap ideological gap Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. gender gender Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 10-point left–right voting scale 10-point left–right voting scale Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. cultural attitudes cultural attitudes Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. generational cohort generational cohort Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. type of society type of society Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. religiosity religiosity Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. labor force participation labor force participation Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. education education Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. age age Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. socioeconomic status socioeconomic status Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. +.10 / –.08 / –.14 — Mean gender gap on the 10-point voting scale in advanced industrialized, postcommunist and developing societies respectively (positive = women further left) Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. r=.46 — Correlation between respondents' left-right ideological self-placement and the expert-coded left-right position of the party they intended to vote for, used as a reliability check on the voting scale Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. six out of 57 nations — Number of countries in the 1990s where women were significantly more right wing than men on ideological self-placement Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. fourteen countries — Number of countries in the same comparison where women were significantly more left wing than men Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. sixty societies — Number of societies compared across the three waves of the World Values Surveys Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. 5.61 in 1973 to 5.20 in 1999 — Mean ideological self-placement of European women on the 10-point left-right scale at the start and end of the Eurobarometer series Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution. six out of ten nations — Number of advanced industrialized countries (of the ten with a complete set of controls) where women voted significantly further left than men in the uncontrolled model Quotation withheld because this record is not cleared for redistribution.

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