Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019. — TEI-tagged view

Thomas AichnerpersName, Matthias GrünfelderpersName, Oswin MaurerpersName, Deni JegenipersName (2021date). “Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019..” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networkingtitle·j.

Object of study — definitionsterm·key of social mediaterm·dom and its alternative terms, 1994date to 2019date

Research question — how the definitionterm·key of social mediaterm·dom changed from 1994date to 2019date, and what its definitionsterm·key share and differ in

Contribution — a timeline of social mediaterm·dom definitionsterm·key for putting earlier findings in perspective

Full text — tagged

Twenty-Five Years of Social Mediaterm·dom: A Review of Social Mediaterm·dom Applications and Definitionsterm·key from 1994date to 2019date.

Abstract In this article, the authors present the results from a structured review of the literature, identifying and analyzing the most quoted and dominant definitionsterm·key of social mediaterm·dom (SMterm·dom) and alternative terms that were used between 1994date and 2019date to identify their major applications. Similarities and differences in the definitionsterm·key are highlighted to provide guidelines for researchers and managers who use results from previous research to further study SMterm·dom or to find practical applications. In other words, when reading an article about SMterm·dom, it is essential to understand how the researchers defined SMterm·dom and how results from articles that use different definitionsterm·key can be compared. This article is intended to act as a guideline for readers of those articles.

Keywords: social mediaterm·dom, social networksterm·key, social mediaterm·dom definitionterm·key, social mediaterm·dom applications, literature review Introduction The term “social mediaterm·dom” (SMterm·dom) was first used in 1994date on a Tokyo online media environment, called Matisse. 1 It was in these early days of the commercial Internet that the first SMterm·dom platforms were developed and launched. Over time, both the number of SMterm·dom platforms and the number of active SMterm·dom usersterm·dom have increased significantly, making it one of the most important applications of the Internet.

With a similarly fast pace, businesses have moved their marketing interests toward SMterm·dom platforms. The presence of both businesses and usersterm·dom on SMterm·dom has further led to a shift in how companies interact with their customers, who are additionally no longer limited to a passive role in their relationship with a company. 2 Customers give feedback, ask questions, and expect quick and customized answers to their specific problems. In addition, customers post text, pictures, and videos. Managers came to the understanding that the brand transition to SMterm·dom ultimately involves a re-casting of the customer relationship, where the customer has become an ally or an enemy, not an audience. 3 In research, SMterm·dom is generally used as an umbrella term that describes a variety of online platforms, including blogs, business networks, collaborative projects, enterprise social networksterm·key (SN), forums, microblogs, photo sharing, products review, social bookmarking, social gaming, SN, video sharing, and virtual worlds. 4 Given this broad spectrum of SMterm·dom platforms, the applications of SMterm·dom are quite diverse and not limited to sharing holiday snapshots or advertising and promotion.

As of January 2020, there are more than 110,000 publications that have the term “social mediaterm·dom” in their title. Over the past 25 years in which these works were published, countless researchers have formulated quite varying definitionsterm·key of SMterm·dom—sometimes using alternative terms. In this period, the perceptions and understanding of what SMterm·dom is, what it includes, and what it represents have also varied considerably. This can make it difficult for both researchers and companies to interpret and apply research findings; for example , when referring to SMterm·dom in general, rather than referring to a specific type of SMterm·dom, such as SN. It can be problematic to quote previous research that was carried out exclusively on one SMterm·dom platform as being generalizable to SMterm·dom, or to refer to results from research that defined SMterm·dom as being more or less inclusive in terms of which platforms qualify as SMterm·dom and which do not.

Major Applications of SMterm·dom This section serves as the background of SMterm·dom functions, rather than how the definitionterm·key has changed. It provides a general, although not comprehensive, overview of some of the most important applications of SMterm·dom over the past two and a half decades. This is important, as it highlights that SMterm·dom cover a broad variety of scopes with specific functions and applications that can differ greatly between the different types of SMterm·dom. Consequently, also the purpose and the usersterm·dom' perceived value of using SMterm·dom varies. From a research perspective, this section serves as a foundation for classifying and discussing the SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key that are presented in the following chapters.

Socializing with friends and family Although not all SMterm·dom platforms are specifically designed to facilitate socialization between its usersterm·dom, it may be considered one of the most apparent commonalities of all types of SMterm·dom. 4 Sometimes referred to as online communities, these SMterm·dom platforms are valuable given that peopleterm·dom often do not perceive a difference between virtual friends and real friends, as long as they feel supported and belong to a community of like-minded individuals. 5 The SMterm·dom helps to strengthen relationships through the sharing of important life events in the form of status updates, photos, etc., reinforcing at the same time their in-person encounters as well. 6 The SMterm·dom has also become a common tool for communication in families. A study conducted by Sponcil and Gitimu 7 showed that for 91.7 percent of students the main reason for using SMterm·dom is communicating with family and friends. In addition, 50 percent of the students communicated with their family and friends every day, and another 40 percent at least a few days a week. Williams and Merten 8 suggest that by using SMterm·dom in everyday life, peopleterm·dom strengthen the relationships with family. Especially in relation to globalization and constant migration, it has become a vital tool for maintaining contact within migrant families. The need for transnational communication between family members and the peopleterm·dom they left behind is of great importance. 9 Romance and flirting Several studies suggest that SMterm·dom significantly influences the romantic aspects of life. Aside from facilitating human interaction, communication technologies are also shaping and defining our relationships. 10 It has been shown that SMterm·dom is important in the starting phases of a relationship and has a significant influence on the relationship of many couples in the long run. 11 The SMterm·dom can help when starting a romantic relationship, for example , contacting a crush through SMterm·dom can have special benefits for introverts, who otherwise would avoid face-to-face contact and would otherwise communicate less. 7 Moreover, in some cases, online dating is preferable to live dating, as it gives the same feeling and allows usersterm·dom to avoid unnecessary discomforts. 11 Finally, rejection on SMterm·dom is less painful compared with face-to-face rejection. 10 Further, usersterm·dom can contemplate their responses and do not have to worry about their physical appearance while conversing/chatting online, making it a less stressful environment to flirt with peopleterm·dom on SMterm·dom than face-to-face conversations. 12 Interacting with companies and brands It is estimated that close to 100 percent of larger companies (both B2C and B2B) are using some sort of SMterm·dom platform to inform their customers, gather information, receive feedback, provide after-sales service or consultancy, and promote their products or services. The key characteristic that makes SMterm·dom so relevant for companies is the fact that SMterm·dom allows for two-way communication between the brand and the customer. 13 Sometimes referred to as “social customer relationship management,” 14 SMterm·dom can be viewed as an effective tool used to get closer to the customer. However, some studies suggest that what customers seek is somewhat different from what companies offer through SMterm·dom. 14 Customers are mainly interested in communicating easily and quickly with the company. From a business perspective, the company wants to make sure customers receive the right information in a timely manner, linking the customer closer to the brand and, simultaneously, controlling the flow of information. Successful SMterm·dom managers understand how an SMterm·dom platform works and is used by its customers, and they then develop corporate communication tools that fit the behavior of their usersterm·dom. Many researchers highlight the need for customer relationship management to adapt to the rise of SMterm·dom 2 to efficiently manage relationships with modern, connected, and empowered customers.

Job seeking and professional networking Another application of SMterm·dom is to connect job seekers with employers. The vast majority of Fortune 500 companies use LinkedIn for talent acquisition. 15 With more than 660 million usersterm·dom in 2020, it is an important tool for companies searching to expand their talent pool. This pool of individuals is extended, as the nature of SMterm·dom also allows recruiters to identify and target, apart from active usersterm·dom, talented candidates who are passive or semi-passive and lure them to prospective job positions. 16 In fact, through SMterm·dom platforms such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter, recruiters can post job advertisements to lure potential applicants who are not actively looking for a job. 17 Rather than the costly and time-consuming traditional ways of staffing with interviews and tests, hiring through SMterm·dom offers recruiters the benefit of free access to prospects' profiles and an instant means of communication. For usersterm·dom, LinkedIn profiles allow them to create an idealized portrait by displaying their skills to recruiters and peers. 18 Indeed, LinkedIn asks members to highlight their relevant skills, promoting their abilities and strengths, urging them to complete their profiles through getting recommendations and praise from peers/colleagues and clients for their performance or skills. 19 Doing business The SMterm·dom has a considerable impact on how companies approach clients and vice versa. In addition, SMterm·dom utilizing SMterm·dom as a means of understanding and informing customers has become imperative for businesses to remain competitive. The SMterm·dom providers have created possibilities for companies to improve their internal operations and communicate in new ways with customers, other businesses, and suppliers. 20 At the same time, companies can actively engage customers, encouraging them to become advocates of their brands. 2 This is certainly important, as usersterm·dom can create online customer communities, which potentially add value to the brand beyond just increased sales. 20 The engagement of customers can be beneficial, as they will frequently interact with the brand and share positive word-of-mouth since they have become more emotionally attached to the brand. 21 This electronic word-of-mouth created in SMterm·dom communities helps consumers in their purchasing decisions. 22 This suggestion is important given that customers are actually more interested in other usersterm·dom' recommendations and word-of-mouth rather than the vendor-created product information. 23 Research questions Reviewing the existent literature about SMterm·dom applications inevitably leads to the question of whether the researchers had the same definitionterm·key in mind when talking about SMterm·dom, SN, online communities, and the like. It is also apparent that the focus of the researcher's interest has changed over time, and that the time when the research was conducted could have an impact on how the findings should be interpreted. Therefore, the remainder of this article aims at answering the following research questions (RQ): RQ1: How has the definitionterm·key of social mediaterm·dom changed from 1994date to 2019date?

RQ2: What are the differences and commonalities in social mediaterm·dom definitionsterm·key from 1994date to 2019date?

Method To answer the two RQ, we decided to conduct a systematic literature reviewterm·key (SLR). Using a multi-step SLR approach as recommended by Tranfield et al. 24 ( Fig. 1 ), we structurally examined the literature between 1994date and 2019date to find all relevant SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key to identify the major differences and commonalities.

Structure and process of the systematic literature reviewterm·key.

After identifying 88 potential papers, all the articles were read to find original definitionsterm·key for SMterm·dom or related terms. In addition, we used backward and forward snowballing, two methods frequently employed in academic research to find additional relevant sources based on the references used in the original publication (backward snowballingterm·mth) and searched papers that cited the article (forward snowballing), respectively. 25 In combination with the SLR, the backward snowballingterm·mth led to the identification of a total number of 21 original definitionsterm·key, including some definitionsterm·key that were published in books and conference proceedings, which were not included in the SLR.

Results In this chapter, we present all major definitionsterm·key of SMterm·dom (and synonymous terms) that were formulated from 1994date to 2019date ( Table 1 ). Table 1 further includes details about the source and the number of citations according to Google Scholar as of August 2020.

Social Mediaterm·dom Definitionsterm·key with Author Names, Source, and the Number of Citations As of August 2020 Before we assess the meaning and compare the definitionsterm·key in terms of the two RQ, a few quantitative results are provided. Analyzing the 21 definitionsterm·key, we found a lexical densityterm·mth (i.e., the percentage of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs) of 57.5 percent. The most frequently used word with 23 occurrences is “social,” followed by “peopleterm·dom” with 12 occurrences, and “virtual,” “content,” “userterm·dom,” and “network” with 8 occurrences each. In terms of two-word phrases, “social networkterm·key[s]” (8 occurrences) is followed by “social mediaterm·dom” and “social networking” (5 occurrences each), as well as “virtual communitiesterm·dom” (VCterm·dom) (4 occurrences).

Notably, the first formal definitionterm·key is from 1996 and uses “computer-supported social networksterm·key” or “CSSNs,” although the term “SMterm·dom” was coined about 2 years earlier. Later, researchers used different terms such as “virtual communitiesterm·dom,” “social networksterm·key,” “social networking services,” “online social networkterm·key,” “social networking sites,” “social networkterm·key sites,” and “social mediaterm·dom.” Although there are small variations in these terms, they can be classified into three categories: VCterm·dom, SN, and SMterm·dom. It is important to mention that all these definitionsterm·key describe the same concept, but with different terms. Assessing the SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key that resulted from the SLR reveals that from 1997 to 2002, VCterm·dom was the dominant term. In contrast, SN was used over a longer period, but it was dominant from 2005 to 2009. It was only in 2010 that researchers started using predominantly SMterm·dom. But how did the definitionsterm·key—independent from their terminology—change?

Throughout the observed period, the role of SMterm·dom, as an enabler for human interaction as well as an avenue to connect with other usersterm·dom, has been a constant in defining SMterm·dom. In early definitionsterm·key, the focus was mainly on peopleterm·dom and how peopleterm·dom interact, whereas later definitionsterm·key (after 2010) have largely substituted the term “peopleterm·dom” with “userterm·dom” and placed more focus on generating and sharing content. This changed focus, with regard to both the application of SMterm·dom and the terminology of peopleterm·dom versus userterm·dom, may also reflect the increasingly important role of anonymity in SMterm·dom. 47 The role of user-generated contentterm·dom is not reflected in early definitionsterm·key, whereas it has become a central part of recent definitionsterm·key. It was Kaplan and Haenlein 38 who first mentioned “creation,” whereas later definitionsterm·key use terms such as “user-supplied content” and “user-driven platforms” in addition to “user-generated contentterm·dom,” which is the common term used in research and practice today.

Another notable change is that until 2009, several researchers included the common interests that linked peopleterm·dom with each other, whereas this link is completely missing in post-2010 definitionsterm·key. Again, this may be reflected by the fact that in the early days, SMterm·dom usersterm·dom were mostly close or loosely related friends communicating with each other, whereas in recent years, SMterm·dom has evolved to a set of media that are also used as a powerful tool by companies, celebrities, and influencers to reach the masses. 48 Finally, although sharing information and content is generally not the central aspect in defining SMterm·dom, the terminology has changed over time. Until 2010, researchers used “exchange” or “upload,” which were substituted with the term “share” in subsequent years. The underlying meaning, however, remained the same.

Conclusions About 60,000 articles have cited the SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key summarized in this article. Therefore, the value this research provides goes beyond a simple overview of the definitionsterm·key and major applications of SMterm·dom in the 25 years, since the term was originally coined. The result is a timeline of SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key that helps researchers and practitioners to quickly put the results of previous research in perspective and to avoid time-consuming research of the single definitionsterm·key in different papers. Why is this necessary? This is because, based on the definitionterm·key, the results may need to be interpreted in a more or less different way.

One notable result is that, although SMterm·dom is one of the main research areas in social sciences (and beyond) and its landscape has been changing quickly, only a handful of scholars have made an effort to develop a definitionterm·key of SMterm·dom. Although some elements, for example , the fact that SMterm·dom connects peopleterm·dom, are common, the definitionsterm·key are rather different from each other. The commonalities and differences highlighted in the previous section allow for the division of the definitionsterm·key into two main streams: those published before 2010 and after 2010. Before 2010, SMterm·dom was commonly approached as a tool of connectivity for peopleterm·dom with common interests. After 2010, the focus changed to creating and sharing user-generated contentterm·dom.

These results are in line with previous research about the evolution of SMterm·dom literature, which concluded that SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key changed over time, namely from platforms for socializing in the past to tools for information aggregation. 45 Similarly, Kapoor et al. 45 found that there was an evolution in SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key and a cut in the early 2010. Our research shows that there is no single or commonly accepted definitionterm·key, but that several definitionsterm·key have been co-existing and found broad acceptance in literature.

Future SMterm·dom researchers can use these findings to better compare SMterm·dom articles and avoid flaws in their theory or methodological design. Especially when comparing the results of empirical studies, it may be critical to consider both when the study was conducted and which SMterm·dom definitionterm·key was used as a basis for hypothesis development and data analysis. In addition, this article gives SMterm·dom researchers the possibility to make an informed choice of which SMterm·dom definitionterm·key to use for their studies.

Given the method employed to identify the SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key, we are confident that this is the most comprehensive overview that includes all major publications. However, the results may be limited by the original search terms used to identify the papers to be included in the SLR. Although the use of backward snowballingterm·mth should have helped in minimizing this risk, there may still be some less explicit definitionsterm·key of SMterm·dom that were not included in this article. In addition, non-English articles and other gray literature were not considered, which is common criticism in academic research. Future research could also try to identify the differences in how SMterm·dom is defined by researchers from different scientific backgrounds, for example , marketing versus medicine versus psychology versus anthropology versus engineering versus information technology. It would also be insightful to see whether there are tendencies of certain researchers, for example , from engineering, to base their research on specific definitionsterm·key rather than on others. For example, if one definitionterm·key is dominant in engineering but not in medical research, this would imply that interdisciplinary research about SMterm·dom applications needs to be compared more carefully, as the basic definitionterm·key differs. Similarly, it would be interesting to link the use of SMterm·dom definitionsterm·key to the cultural or national context of where the research was carried out, for example , to identify whether European versus American versus Asian researchers have a generally different understanding of SMterm·dom and its applications. These possible cultural differences in the definitionterm·key or selection of an SMterm·dom definitionterm·key as a basis for research could be linked to the fact that in different countries and cultural clusters different SMterm·dom platforms are more or less popular. 49 Overall, our research will help compare findings from SMterm·dom literature more easily and avoid misinterpretations of past and future research.

Author Disclosure Statement No competing financial interests exist.

Funding Information This work was supported by the Open Access Publishing Fund of the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano.

References