What is esports? A systematic scoping review and concept analysis of esports. — TEI-tagged view

Di TangpersName, Raymond Kim-wai SumpersName, Minghui LipersName, Ruisi MapersName, Peichi ChungpersName, Ray Wai-keung HopersName (2023date). “What is esports? A systematic scoping review and concept analysis of esports..” Heliyontitle·j.

Object of study — the concept of esportsterm·dom and its related terms

Research question — what the commonalities and contradictions among esportsterm·dom definitions are, and whether they explain esportsterm·dom in today's industry

Contribution — esportsterm·dom criteria that can prevent misunderstandings and standardise terms in esportsterm·dom research

Full text — tagged

What is esportsterm·dom? A systematic scoping reviewterm·key and concept analysis of esportsterm·dom.

Abstract This study conducted a systematic scoping reviewterm·key to collect definitions and explanations of esportsterm·dom and its related conceptsterm in the existing literature. A thematic codingterm approach was used to screen possible disagreements and issues between the different characteristics of esportsterm·dom as presented in the existing definitions. Based on a critical discussion, the results of the coding were combined with the objective facts of the current esportsterm·dom industry and theories from similar fields to reconstruct the construction of an esportsterm·dom definition. In addition, the relationship between esportsterm·dom and its related conceptsterm was discussed based on the proposed esportsterm·dom definition structure. The proposed esportsterm·dom criteria can help avoid misunderstandings and confusion in future studies regarding the research subjects related to esportsterm·dom and propose standardized usage of relevant terms in the field of esportsterm·dom research.

Keywords: Esportsterm·dom, Scoping reviewterm·key, Concept analysis, Definition, Thematic analysis Introduction Since 2010, the esportsterm·dom industry has seen tremendous growth, driven by the increase in game players and audiences and technology development [ 1 , 2 ]. With the emergence of its economic value, esportsterm·dom has started to receive great attention from various fields. However, the development of esportsterm·dom theory and scientific research has been lagging behind the development of practice. In terms of the number of studies, from 2002 to March 2018, less than 200 articles on esportsterm·dom were published in various research fields from four databases [ 3 ], and it was not until 2020 that the quantity of esportsterm·dom research started to increase significantly [ 4 , 5 ]. However, there has been no widely accepted definition for esportsterm·dom [ 6 ]. This situation also causes a series of problems in esportsterm·dom research and development: (1) The varying definitions of esportsterm·dom exhibit conspicuous differences and even inconsistencies, engendering a degree of misunderstanding and perplexity in comprehending the results of diverse esportsterm·dom investigations. The generalization of findings across diverse esportsterm·dom investigations is hindered by the absence of consensus regarding the identification of esportsterm·dom. For example, in a recent study, we can see that the result of research on massively multiplayer online role-playing gamesterm·dom (MMORPGterm·dom) was assimilated into the domain of esportsterm·dom [ 7 ], although it is not conventionally regarded as esportsterm·dom. (2) In some esports-related research articles, because different definitions are somewhat controversial, these articles only list the differences and development of multiple esportsterm·dom concepts instead of giving a certain adopted definition [ [8] , [9] , [10] ]. Therefore, without a precise definition of the research subjects, there will be certain obstacles to the generalization and application of the conclusions of these studies. (3) The existence of multiple alternative and related conceptsterm without a uniform definition and use standard [ [11] , [12] , [13] , [14] , [15] ] will result in the misuse of these concepts, and misunderstandings of the conclusions of the related research. Therefore, clarifying the concept of esportsterm·dom and the relationship between esportsterm·dom and its related conceptsterm is an important basis for future research, and it is also a necessary part of improving public awareness of esportsterm·dom and promoting the development of the esportsterm·dom industry. Additionally, esportsterm·dom has become a formal competition in Asian Games in 2022, and what games were selected by Asian Games will also provide new insights from the industry on how we define esportsterm·dom. Since 2016, an increasing number of new esportsterm·dom games, such as mobile games (e.g., Honor of King) and motion sensing games (e.g., Just Dance, Formula One Esportsterm·dom Series), have appeared in the formal international esportsterm·dom competition. All of this brings us to the necessity to revisit and understand the definitions of esportsterm·dom in the context of industry trends.

Despite the ongoing controversies, there has yet to be a systematic evaluation of these divergent perspectives. To address this issue, the present study employs a scoping reviewterm·key approach to summarize, evaluate, and discuss the relevant definitions and research on esportsterm·dom. Scoping reviewsterm·key employ clear, precise, and transparent research methods to minimize bias and provide a comprehensive overview of current knowledge [ 16 , 17 ], and a systematic review aims to “map the key concepts underpinning a research area and the main sources and types of evidence available [ 18 ]”, which is applicable to addressing the current issues in the field of esportsterm·dom research. This study aimed to systematically collect, identify, and analyze the core attributes of esportsterm·dom and screen potential areas of contention within the definitions present across various literature sources. We wanted to explore and understand the commonalities and contradictions between the different definitions and see if the various definitions of esportsterm·dom could explain the esportsterm·dom we see in the industry to this day. By systematically summarizing the commonalities and contradictions among these different definitions, preserving the features and content that have reached consensus, and understanding and resolving the points of contradiction, we can integrate a framework for the concept of esportsterm·dom that is in line with the current situation. This framework can provide clearer standards for establishing the research object of future studies related to esportsterm·dom. In addition, integrating the current academic explanations and discussions of similar concepts in esportsterm·dom will construct a more systematic and organized terminology system related to esportsterm·dom. Through such efforts, it is plausible that we can effectively address the aforementioned limitations and issues inherent in contemporary esportsterm·dom research.

Methods Research objective In this study, we conducted a scoping reviewterm·key to: (1) Collect, analyze, and evaluate the core attributes of esportsterm·dom from the existing literature, identify the potential issues under each theme through thematic codingterm, and finally propose a comprehensive framework of esportsterm·dom in line with the background of the contemporary era; (2) Clarify several related conceptsterm in the field of esportsterm·dom research based on views and trends in the literature and delineate how these concepts relate to esportsterm·dom.

Protocol and registration The protocol of this scoping reviewterm·key was registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NYX6D ).

Search strategy An electronic search strategy was employed using the following databases: (1) SPORTDiscus, (2) Scopus, (3) Web of Science, and (4) PubMed. No particular start date was adopted, and the last search was conducted on 13 May 2022. These databases are related to sports, education, sociology, information technology, and health, which are suitable for the topic of esportsterm·dom and increase the probability that all relevant studies (in English) have been located. The boolean logic combinations search strategy was adopted within the electronic databases, including “electronic sportterm·key(s)”, esportterm·dom(s), “e-sport(s)”, cybersport(s), “cyber sportterm·key(s)”, “virtual sportterm·dom(s)”, and “digital sportterm·dom(s)”.

Eligibility criteria The inclusion criteria of this scoping reviewterm·key were: (1) Articles containing the definition or explanation of the concept of esportsterm·dom; (2) Articles with published status; (3) Publications in English; The exclusion criteria of this scoping reviewterm·key were: (1) Keywords in search strategies such as esportsterm·dom appear in the title, keywords, or abstract of the article, but there is no clear explanation of the definition of esportsterm·dom given in the full text; (2) Not in full-text format.

Since some of the mainstream and important definitions of esportsterm·dom come from different types of publications, including conference papers, book chapters, statements from international organizations, etc., and there is no unified document type filter across the different databases, in the initial document search, the document type was not limited. After reading the literature at a later stage, the publication types of the selected literature were summarized.

This study followed the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis extensionterm for scoping reviewsterm·key (PRISMA-ScR) [ 19 ]. The details of the PRISMA-ScR checklist are provided in Appendix A . Two main reviewers worked independently on screening and data exaction. The criteria were discussed by two reviewers for accuracy before the formal process, and a pilot test was done with ten articles to refine the standards and reach a consensus on the practice of screening and data extraction. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion between the two reviewers or further adjudication by a third reviewer. In accordance with the procedures, a total of 1590 duplicate papers were removed. After removing all the duplicates, the papers were read thoroughly and screened based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Additional records were also added to the identified process (obtained from the references of the reviewed articles that did not appear in the search process in the selected databases). A total of 54 articles were added to the additional records for the identified process. In the end, 299 articles were included.

Data exaction and qualitative synthesis A close re-reading of 299 literature sources was done in the initial stage of analysis as a familiarization process. We extracted the definitions of esportsterm·dom adopted by the papers and any other material describing the concept's different dimensions from the included literature. Thereafter, thematic codingterm was used to identify categories from the papers in the analysis. Thematic codingterm is a method of identifying common themes within passages of text with the purpose of data retrieval [ 20 ]. A three-step coding was performed in the process, starting from an open coding. The intention behind the whole process was to extract the core attribute from the initial coding. To assist with this process, NVivo 12 was used to organize the data. Two independent coders participated in the process of thematic codingterm. The two coders exhibited a noteworthy level of agreement, achieving 91 % intercoder agreement, which surpasses the recommended threshold of 85 % as proposed [ 21 ]. Cohen's kappa (κ) was also calculated to increase the credibility of the research. Cohen's kappa (κ) assesses the overall reliability between coders, with values closer to 1 indicating stronger agreement [ 22 ]. An excellent level of agreement is indicated by a Cohen's kappa (κ) value exceeding 0.8. In this study, the calculated Cohen's kappa (κ) value is 0.90.

Procedure of qualitative analysis A flow chart ( Fig. 1 ) illustrates the entire qualitative analysis process. Through the process of thematic codingterm, we identify and extract the underlying themes or characteristics of esportsterm·dom reflected in these diverse definitions and explanations. Subsequently, we synthesize and summarize the commonalities within these different themes, as well as identify the contradictions and points of controversy that emerge within specific themes. In the critical analysis of contradictions, when different points of contention or contradiction were encountered under the same theme, the discussion was based on the following criteria: (1) Analysis of the text of the definitions to identify if there is any linguistic ambiguity in the definition or interpretation of esportsterm·dom or controversies caused by linguistic differences between countries (e.g., spelling, differences in literal explanation, etc.） (2) The number and proportion of each theme or feature supported or mentioned by different studies were used as evidence for a discussion on whether a particular feature has reached a dominance in interpretation or whether the idea is already well supported by the structured theory.

(3) Whether this feature explains the shape and character of esportsterm·dom as recognized in the industry today, such as the esportsterm·dom events involved in the Asian Games and emerging esportsterm·dom activities recognized by the current esportsterm·dom community or media (Just Dance, Formula One Esportsterm·dom Series). The ability of this feature to explain the esportsterm·dom currently being proposed in the community was also an important criterion [ 23 ].

The process of qualitative analysis.

Concept analysis In addition to thematic codingterm, in this study, we also referenced part of the framework of concept analysis to discuss and analyze the concept of esportsterm·dom. Concept analysis is regarded as a method to explore the attributes of a concept and clarify its definition. This study referenced Rodgers’ six-step method concept analysis (see Table 1 ) [ 24 ], which was selected for the following reasons: (1) It is an inductive approach that supported the fact that concepts are dynamic in nature, as they continuously develop across both time and varying contexts; (2) The philosophical basis for this method rejects the existence of a “crystal clear” notion of what a concept is [ 24 ]; (3) It meets the research aims of this study (to clarify alternative and related conceptsterm of esportsterm·dom and to summarize and analyze the attributes of esportsterm·dom).

Rodgers’ evolutionary concept analysis [ 24 ].

Results Summary The number of papers that were identified, screened, and considered for eligibility is summarized in Fig. 2 . In the end, a total of 299 articles were identified as suitable for further qualitative synthesis, and these articles were divided into three types of publication: (1) book chapter, (2) journal article, and (3) conference papers.

A flow diagram of identification and selection.

The year of publication for these papers is displayed in Fig. 3 . It is evident that starting from 2018, there has been an increasing amount of interpretation and discussion regarding the definition of esportsterm·dom. Furthermore, among the selected 299 papers, 47 of them cited the definition provided by Hamari [ 2 ], while 30 papers cited the definition by Wagner [ 25 , 26 ]. Table 2 illustrates the most frequently cited definitions within the 299 papers.

Year of publication.

Most-cited esportsterm·dom definitions.

Qualitative synthesis The analysis identified a total of 1157 codes, which were organized into 96 core categories and then further organized into 19 subthemes. Finally, these subthemes were grouped into two higher-order themes. Table 3 presents the findings, with numbers in parentheses indicating the frequency of core categories used in the definitions across the 299 articles. It was observed that among these categories, besides certain attribution relationships, there were also contradictory relationships, which reflect the ongoing controversy and contradictions in defining esportsterm·dom. The subsequent section provides a comprehensive review of these core categories, subthemes, and higher-order themes. Each theme is then explained and analyzed, following the framework and steps of concept analysis.

The hierarchical structure of coding results, including core categories, subthemes, and higher-order themes.

Surrogate termsterm and related conceptsterm Based on Rodger's theory of concept analysis, surrogate termsterm refer to alternative terms of the chosen concept, and related conceptsterm are concepts in relation to the selected concept but are not the same concept [ 24 ]. However, due to the lack of clarity in the definition of esportsterm·dom, in this study, we analyzed surrogate termsterm and related conceptsterm together, clarified these concepts, and discussed their differences and similarities based on the literature. The following terms were identified as target terms: electronic sportsterm·key, e-sports, eSportsterm·dom, cybersports, cyber sportsterm·key, digital sportsterm·dom, and virtual sportsterm·dom.

Electronic sportsterm·key, e-sports, eSportsterm·dom, and esportsterm·dom First of all, it is generally accepted that esportsterm·dom is the abbreviation of electronic sportsterm·key, and “eSportsterm·dom”, “esportsterm·dom”, and “e-sports” are only different in English writing. The term “esportsterm·dom” is often used in the Anglo-American area, and the Associated Press in America announced that “esportsterm·dom” is confirmed as the official spelling in the American Copy Editors Society meeting in the US in 2017 [ 29 , 32 ]; “eSportsterm·dom” is the prevailing spelling in Europe; and “e-Sports” is adopted in Asia [ 33 ]. In this article, they were considered the same term, and “esportsterm·dom” was adopted in this paper.

Virtual sportsterm·dom In the screened articles, 33 papers mentioned virtual sportsterm·dom. In 29 of these articles, virtual sportsterm·dom tends to be a sport or physical activity (such as dance) played in a virtual environment and utilizing information technology, especially motion capture, augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR). Virtual sportsterm·dom in these papers highlights the body movement involved in the process. Besides, some articles even mentioned that in this kind of activity, electronically modified sports equipment might be used, such as “a real ball” or “a bat” [ 34 , 35 ]. Such a concept shares some similarities with exergaming, exergamesterm·key, and active video gamesterm·dom, which are emerging in recent sports or education research areas. Exergameterm·dom commonly refers to video games in which physical effort is needed, and exergaming is “an experiential activity … which involves playing exergamesterm·key or any videogames that require physical exertion or movements that are more than sedentary activities and also include strength, balance, and flexibility activities” [ 36 ]. Active video gamesterm·dom refer to video games that require physical activity beyond that of conventional hand-controlled games [ 37 ].

By contrast, it is easy to see that exergamesterm·key, active video gamesterm·dom, and virtual sportsterm·dom all emphasize the physical element of the activities. Virtual sportsterm·dom emphasize the more traditional sports elements, while exergamesterm·key show a wider of game types rather than being limited to imitating traditional sports. Virtual sportsterm·dom sometimes refers to sports video games [ 38 , 39 ]. In the searched articles, virtual sportsterm·dom were often used and discussed in the field of traditional sports training in the early days. With the advancement of technology, it has become possible to create an indoor virtual sportsterm·dom environment for sports training that accurately simulates real sports settings [ 40 , 41 ]. It is evident that exergamesterm·key utilize advanced electronic equipment to enhance the variety of input methods and control mechanisms for players during the gameplay. Instead of relying solely on traditional input devices such as mice, keyboards, or buttons, motion capture, AR, and VR technology allows players to interact using various physical actions. Meanwhile, three articles directly equate virtual sportsterm·dom to esportsterm·dom. Considering the proportion of these viewpoints in the analyzed literature and the subsequent discussion on the definition of esportsterm·dom., we do not fully equate virtual sportsterm·dom to esportsterm·dom in this article.

Besides, three articles propose the concept of physical esportsterm·dom, specifying that physical esportsterm·dom “enables players to feel the actions involved in the actual sport not only through computer graphics (CG) images but also through feedback to their bodies using extended reality (XR) technology without being concerned about physical limitations or age-restricted.” [ [42] , [43] , [44] ]. Based on this concept, we found that virtual sportsterm·dom share some commonality with the definition of physical esportsterm·dom. Additionally, we can find some activities that fit the definition of virtual sportsterm·dom or physical esportsterm·dom start to appear in formal international esportsterm·dom competitions. For example, Formula One Esportsterm·dom Series has become one of the important esportsterm·dom tournaments since 2017; Just Dance became a formal competition in Electronic Sportsterm·key World Cup (ESWC) in 2017 and 2019. The classification of virtual sportsterm·dom as esportsterm·dom, as well as the specific types of virtual sportsterm·dom that can be considered esportsterm·dom, still require further exploration and substantiation through additional theoretical and empirical evidence. Nonetheless, the current findings indicate the potential for such categorization.

Cybersports and cyber sportsterm·key The terms cyber sportsterm·key and cybersports in the analyzed literature are also only different in English writing. There is no difference between them. Fourteen articles mentioned the concept of cyber sportsterm·key, of which 11 articles equate cyber sportsterm·key to esportsterm·dom and three articles equate cyber sportsterm·key to virtual sportsterm·dom. In this article, we took cyber sportsterm·key as a surrogate termterm for esportsterm·dom.

Digital sportsterm·dom Among the reviewed articles that utilize the term “digital sportsterm·dom”, none of them provide a specific definition or explanation for the term. Therefore, in this section, we have compiled various perspectives and examples related to digital sportsterm·dom from the reviewed literature in order to summarize their interpretation of digital sportsterm·dom.

A total of 23 articles mentioned and discussed the term “digital sportsterm·dom” while offering various perspectives and examples. However, these articles differ from the ones mentioned earlier regarding terms such as virtual sportsterm·dom and cyber sportsterm·key. Their interpretation of digital sportsterm·dom is entirely distinct, and there is no clear or prevailing consensus on its definition.

These views can be divided into four groups. Four of the 23 articles refer to digital sportsterm·dom as a concept similar to exergamesterm·key or active video gamesterm·dom, and another four articles refer to digital sportsterm·dom as sports computer games, such as EA sports games, racing games, etc. Five articles use digital sportsterm·dom to refer to physical exercise with modern technology equipment, such as fitness mobile applications, digital coaches, online sports platforms, etc. In these articles, the core component of digital sportsterm·dom is physical exercise in general, and it is not necessarily video games or competitive. Besides, among these 23 articles, 10 articles take digital sportsterm·dom as the digitalization of sports, and sometimes it means the digitalization of the whole sports industry: (1) In a narrow sense, new information technology or electronic equipment is implemented in the training of traditional sports, such as utilizing electronic sensors in traditional sports training and some wearable devices to detect the real-time physiological state of athletes. It is called the transition from sports to digital sportsterm·dom.

(2) In a broader sense, digitalization encompasses the entire sports industry, extending beyond sports activities alone. It includes the application of information technology in modern electronic sportsterm·key media, as well as the advancements in camera equipment and broadcasting technology in professional sports competitions. These developments collectively contribute to the transformation of sports into digital sportsterm·dom.

Hence, digital sportsterm·dom should be distinguished from the aforementioned esports-related terms as it does not represent a specific form of sports. This term will not be extensively differentiated from other terms. In this article, digital sportsterm·dom is considered to be traditional sports that have undergone a significant level of digitalization.

Attributes This step aims to extract a list of defining characteristics that gives broad insight into the concept and differentiates it from other phenomena [ 24 ]. This part is based on the thematic codingterm from the included literature.

Intrinsic properties Game, rules, and goals Of the 299 reviewed articles, 231 indicate that esportsterm·dom is computer games or video games. Therefore, it is widely acknowledged that esportsterm·dom originates from computer games and video games [ 31 , 45 , 46 ]. Among these 231 articles, 15 of them specifically define esportsterm·dom as “computer games”. Firstly, the term “computer games” can cause some ambiguity. In different contexts, computer games can refer to PC games installed on operating systems such as Windows or Mac OS, controlled and played using devices like keyboards, mice, or game controllers. It can also encompass video games with a broader range of platforms and control methods. Secondly, neither the related papers nor the current esportsterm·dom competitions provide any supporting evidence or theoretical reasoning as to why esportsterm·dom should be limited to PC games. It is evident that esportsterm·dom competitions include more than just PC games. Other forms of games (mobile games, motion-controlled games) have already been accepted by official international esportsterm·dom competitions, such as the World Cyber Games (WCG), Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL), and Asian Games. Therefore, the terms “video games” or “electronic games” might be more suitable for defining esportsterm·dom. Additionally, we have also witnessed the impact of technological changes and advancements on the definition of esportsterm·dom.

Besides, a total of 12 articles mention “rules” in their definition of esportsterm·dom. They highlight that esportsterm·dom should obey uniform rules and carry out fair confrontations. In fact, Juul lists six features of games, and he indicates that all the games should adopt one particular rule, which is an inherent attribute of games [ 47 ]. Furthermore, it was also proposed in the previous research that games are inherently goal-oriented activities [ [48] , [49] , [50] ]. Of the reviewed articles, there are also 26 that mentioned “goal” in the definition of esportsterm·dom. Their explanation of goals can be divided into two groups: goals within games and goals in real life. Four definitions demonstrate that esportsterm·dom is played for speed, points, or victory in the game, while in other definitions, the goal of esportsterm·dom is to “win prizes or make a living” in real life. Based on the definition of games, all the games have a goal to be achieved when played, which means the in-game goal. Therefore, “rules” and “goals” are the essential attributes of the game. In other words, recognizing esportsterm·dom as one video or electronic game implies accepting the feature of “rules” and “goals (within games)”. Hence, some of these codes overlap in meaning. In the existing literature, the purposes of esportsterm·dom in real life are primarily categorized into two types: one is using esportsterm·dom as a means of livelihood, and the other is self-entertainment. Furthermore, we have also come across new articles that utilize esportsterm·dom for educational purposes [ [51] , [52] , [53] ]. In traditional sports, the purposes of different sporting activities often serve as criteria for categorizing sports.

Competitivenessterm·key, game genre, and rating system A total of 248 articles underline “competitivenessterm·key” in their definitions of esportsterm·dom, including phrases such as “overcome their opponents”, “vie for superiority”, “competing against one another”, and so on. Competitivenessterm·key is an essential indicator to distinguish esportsterm·dom from general video games. Additionally, 11 articles also point out that game genre can be considered as an indicator to distinguish between esportsterm·dom and computer games. They list some game genres when defining esportsterm·dom, such as shooting games, fighting games, card games, and so on. In general, first-person shooter (FPS), multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA), real time strategy game (RTS), sports simulation games, card games, and fighting games are the mainstream and widely recognized genres in the current esportsterm·dom industry. These genres typically possess well-developed tournament structures and organized systems [ [54] , [55] , [56] , [57] ]. Moreover, they have garnered recognition and inclusion in prominent international esportsterm·dom events. Additionally, these genres have been featured as distinct event categories within the realm of esportsterm·dom, even serving as medal events during the 2023 Asian Games [ 58 ]. Scholars have also proposed different categories for esportsterm·dom: imagination (e.g., DotA 2, League of Legends, Overwatch), physical enhancement (e.g., Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, Halo series), and sports simulation (e.g., FIFA series, NBA 2K series) [ 59 ]. It is obvious that all of these games are competitive, and conventionally, these games are considered as esportsterm·dom by the public and esportsterm·dom organizations, and they are conventional events in esportsterm·dom competitions. Besides, the rating system in the game also enhances the competitive nature of the game. In sumpersName, distinguishing esportsterm·dom by game genre and rating system is essentially all about distinguishing esportsterm·dom from general video games through its competitive nature. Typically, this rating system in games manifests as a well-defined criterion or scoring mechanism that distinguishes wins and losses, similar to traditional sports. However, with the continuous iteration and progress of games, this rating system has also evolved into an evaluation system for player performance and skill level [ 60 , 61 ]. For instance, in FPS and MOBA games, it may include metrics such as kill count, ranking system in MOBA ranking games, and shooting accuracy in FPS. These refined quantitative indicators further enhance the competitivenessterm·key among players. According to the proportion of the different codes, “game” and “competitivenessterm·key” are the most essential properties in the definition of esportsterm·dom. Therefore, we also found that the majority of articles take competitive computer games or video games as the common definition of esportsterm·dom.

Technology Most of the articles acknowledge that “e” in esportsterm·dom represents “electronic” [ 2 , 33 , 62 ]. Fifty-six out of 299 articles discussed “technology” in the definition of esportsterm·dom, which is related to the term “electronic” in esportsterm·dom. “Technology” in the reviewed articles usually means the use of information and communication technologies in games, which realizes the interaction between people and computers or devices and interactions between players. Meanwhile, the continuous advancements in these technologies are constantly enriching the input forms for players (beyond just keyboards and mice) and the output forms of computers or other devices during gameplay (beyond just computer screens). For example, the maturity of mobile technology and mobile game design have led to the gradual inclusion of mobile games in formal esportsterm·dom competitions. For example, in the upcoming Asian Games, two mobile games have been selected for esportsterm·dom medal competitions; Arena of Valor/Honor of King (mobile games) has become a formal competition in WCG, and Mobile Legends have become a competition in CPL. Additionally, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and optical motion capture technologies have undergone significant advancements and have been successfully integrated into the realm of video games. This integration has demonstrated their potential to expand and enhance the esportsterm·dom industry. Furthermore, the emergence of events such as the Formula One Esportsterm·dom Series and the inclusion of games like Just Dance in formal esportsterm·dom competitions have provided glimpses into the potential and future trends of the industry. Therefore, there is no doubt that esportsterm·dom is closely intertwined with the advancement of technology. Currently, AR and VR have not fully realized their expected outcomes, making it challenging to determine how esportsterm·dom will be presented in the future within a short period. As a result, the form of esportsterm·dom cannot be solely confined to games that rely on one specific technology or device at this stage, and there will be numerous possibilities within the esportsterm·dom industry.

Participation A total of 118 articles attempted to define esportsterm·dom from two perspectives based on the form of how people participate in esportsterm·dom: individually or in a team, remotely or face to face. Six out of 74 articles that discussed “participation” in the definition indicate that esportsterm·dom is a team-based activity, while the other indicated that esportsterm·dom could either be played individually or as a team. Overall, the majority of studies have concluded that esportsterm·dom involve competition between individuals, regardless of whether they participate as individuals or teams.

Furthermore, among the other 45 articles, 8 articles suggested that esportsterm·dom should be played within a local area network, with players gathering in stadiums and arenas, while 2 articles mentioned that esportsterm·dom could be played online or remotely. Regarding the usage of the term “online” in the definition, we referred to the literal meaning explanation provided by the Oxford Dictionary. According to the Oxford Dictionary, “online” means “controlled by or connected to a computer or the Internet”. This implies that the term “online” not only refers to playing esportsterm·dom on the Internet (remotely) but also includes playing within a local network. Based on the Oxford Dictionary, “online” refers to being “connected to another computer or connected to the internet or World Wide Web” [ 63 ]. Therefore, “online” not only suggests playing esportsterm·dom remotely but also in a local network or head-to-head. However, the reasons why esportsterm·dom should be head-to-head games or why they must be played across long distances have not been clarified in the article [ 33 ]. In fact, distance does not affect the content, form, or public recognition of esportsterm·dom. Therefore, in this article, distance will not be considered an attribute of esportsterm·dom. However, it is undeniable that since “online” refers to being networked to another computer, its underlying meaning suggests it is a dual-player or multiplayer activity, whether the players are in a cooperative or competitive relationship, once again indicating that esportsterm·dom should occur between people.

Level In this category, it is found that many codes conflict with each other. Out of 74 articles, 52 indicated that esportsterm·dom should be professional. “Professional”, on the one hand, means the skill level is high. On the other hand, it means making a living with esportsterm·dom or playing esportsterm·dom as a job or career. In the category of “goal”, we can also find that some researchers think the goal of esportsterm·dom should be to make a living with it, which also suggests the same meaning as “professional”. However, in 14 articles, it was demonstrated that esportsterm·dom could also be at an entertaining or semi-professional level. Meanwhile, many of the reviewed articles came up with the concept of “professional esportsterm·key” and “pro-esports” [ [64] , [65] , [66] , [67] , [68] , [69] ], “non-professional esportsterm·dom” [ 65 ], “recreational esportsterm·dom/casual and enthusiastic esportsterm·dom/leisure esportsterm·dom/amateur esportsterm·dom” [ 68 , 70 , 71 ], “esportsterm·dom for all” [ 69 ], or “collegial esportsterm·dom” [ 31 , [72] , [73] , [74] , [75] ]. If esportsterm·dom should be limited to “professional”, these concepts are meaningless or contradictory. However, if esportsterm·dom is considered as a formal sport, we can attempt to explain or address this issue by referring to similar situations in traditional sports. In traditional sports, we categorize sports into different types based on the purpose of the activity, the types of participants, and the level of sports. For example, we have school sports, professional sports, mass sports, and so on. Therefore, as one type of sports, esportsterm·dom can also be approached using a similar classification method. Under this classification framework, esportsterm·dom should have a broader definition that highlights its core attributes. More proposed attributes could be included in narrower definitions of esportsterm·dom, such as specific types of esportsterm·dom (e.g., professional esportsterm·key), rather than a general definition that applies to various contexts. For example, attributes like “making a living with” or “coordinated by different leagues, tournaments, or clubs” are more suitable for defining professional esportsterm·key. Within this classification approach, these proposed attributes of esportsterm·dom achieve compatibility to some extent.

Skills or literacy A total of 37 articles propose that esportsterm·dom players should utilize their mental and physical skills to win the game instead of winning by chance. These abilities and literacy typically encompass communication skills, decision-making abilities, reaction speed, and information and communication technology literacy, among others [ [76] , [77] , [78] , [79] ]. From this perspective, it can also be seen that most researchers acknowledge that physical skills and abilities are not only essential in traditional sports but also crucial in esportsterm·dom. In fact, they can be one of the key factors in achieving victory in esportsterm·dom. However, it cannot be ignored that card games (which are also formal events in the Asian Games and are also accepted as a conventional esportsterm·dom game by the community) do not depend on physical skills. Body movement exists in card games but can hardly be said to contribute to winning. Also, four articles used “cooperation” or “team spirit” in their definition, which also neglected individual esportsterm·dom. In sumpersName, in this article, we do not take these categories to be essential features of esportsterm·dom.

Sportification Fifty-five articles considered esportsterm·dom as a sport directly in their definition. In this section, we also counted all the reviewed articles that discussed the relationship between sports and esportsterm·dom and obtained a proportion of the views that support esportsterm·dom as an official sport and those that do not. In the searched articles, a total of 50 papers clearly stated their attitude towards the issue. Only six papers held that esportsterm·dom is not a sport. Additionally, from the reviewed articles, it was found that Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Italy, Korea, Russia, and the US have already considered esportsterm·dom as a sport [ 80 ], and it is already under consideration in about 40 countries [ 81 ]. In this article, we accept esportsterm·dom as a sport.

Emerging Seven articles proposed that esportsterm·dom is an emerging and new phenomenon, and these articles were primarily published in 2020 [ 67 , [82] , [83] , [84] , [85] , [86] , [87] ]. However, “emerging” is a relative view. In this article, we try to find a more objective and adaptable definition of esportsterm·dom. It is not certain, whether at this moment or in the near future, that “emerging” still fits/will fit the contemporary definition of esportsterm·dom. Although the form of esportsterm·dom is undergoing significant innovation, the concept and events of esportsterm·dom have existed for many years. The first widely-recognized concept of esportsterm·dom emerged in 2006 [ 25 ], and the first “Warcraft” tournament, which is conventionally recognized as an esportsterm·dom event, took place in 2002. Additionally, the inaugural WCG was held in 2000, which is one of the most significant major esportsterm·dom competitions worldwide. Therefore, we consider that esportsterm·dom has been an established activity for many years and is not solely a completely new and emerging phenomenon, and “emerging” will not be considered as a criterion for defining esportsterm·dom in this study.

External environment or relationship Organization and commercial Out of 299 articles, 120 mentioned “organized” in the definition of esportsterm·dom, and nine considered that esportsterm·dom should be “commercial”. These articles try to define esportsterm·dom from its external environment instead of the sports itself. They reckon there should be professional esportsterm·key leagues and tournaments and social organizations or a governing body in esportsterm·dom, just like modern traditional professional competitive sports. In fact, this expression is more similar to the concept of professional sports. Likewise, this attribute will fit better into the definition of professional esportsterm·key than general esportsterm·dom in this article.

From another perspective, during this period when esportsterm·dom is not yet universally recognized, when a certain category of esportsterm·dom games attains a significant player base, its level of commercialization steadily increases. This allows the general public to have opportunities to understand and become aware of it, and the game to gain acceptance and support within the esportsterm·dom community. This might indirectly contribute to the portrayal of esportsterm·dom as a commercialized and professional activity. This approach can also assist us in systematically studying and promoting esportsterm·dom as a formal sport.

Audience and media A total of 49 articles discussed media and audience when defining esportsterm·dom. This discussion did keep in line with the contemporary context and reflects the particularity of esportsterm·dom, a new type of sports in this age. For one thing, from a traditional perspective, being watched by an audience or being broadcast on TV or online is one of the attributes of professional sports. However, in esportsterm·dom, not only professional esportsterm·key competitions are broadcast, but also casual competitions (not so organized as formal tournaments) or esportsterm·dom games or competitions at an entertaining level. Additionally, players include professional esportsterm·key athletes or players at different levels who can also make a living through broadcasting [ 88 , 89 ]. They do not earn money like professional esportsterm·key players (win prize money from tournaments or get paid by the clubs or institutions they are members of). Moreover, such content relies more on live streaming platforms rather than traditional media like traditional sports. These streamers can sometimes also bring the audience an experience of professional-level competitions, while others might only intend to entertain the audience with esportsterm·dom when live streaming. They usually get paid from live streaming platforms, audiences, and commercial sponsors [ 70 , 90 ]. This phenomenon rarely happens in traditional sports – it only exists in esportsterm·dom. Esportsterm·dom streamers usually do not play the games to entertain themselves like normal esportsterm·dom players, but most of them are usually skilled and experienced players or retired professional esportsterm·key players, and the competitions they are involved in are watched by audiences as well [ 91 ]. Therefore, live streaming esportsterm·dom will be a separate type of esportsterm·dom in this article, different from mass esportsterm·dom and professional esportsterm·key.

Culture and industry In a minority of articles, researchers are inclined to define esportsterm·dom in a broader sense, considering it as a culture or industry. Just like the relationship between sports and culture, there is no doubt that esportsterm·dom can be regarded as a cultural phenomenon or closely related to culture, but in this article, we, first of all, try to discuss esportsterm·dom in a narrower sense as a physical and practical activity (as the majority of the reviewed articles did), to distinguish esportsterm·dom from other computer games or activities, and determine its attributes in this age.

Acceptance As the terms and definitions of esportsterm·dom have been controversial, and the theoretical achievements are far behind the practical development of the esportsterm·dom industry, some scholars have proposed that the acceptance of the public and the media can be used as an important indicator to determine whether the activity or game can be regarded as an esportsterm·dom [ 23 ]. At the current stage, this is a feasible method in line with the contemporary situation of esportsterm·dom, but whether this can be regarded as a feature of esportsterm·dom or included in the definition of esportsterm·dom requires further theoretical explanation and discussion.

Antecedents In concept analysis, the antecedents refer to the event or condition that precedes the concept [ 24 ]. Based on the attributes of esportsterm·dom, its main antecedents are: (i) competitive computer games/video games are involved (ii) it occurs between people (iii) it is facilitated by information and communication technology (iv) physical or mental skills are required to compete with opponents or to vie for superiority Consequences Consequences in concept analysis are the events and incidents that result from the concept [ 24 ]. Since nowadays esportsterm·dom is in a period of fast development and it is not yet well studied theoretically, the consequences of esportsterm·dom, for now, still need more evidence and research to be clarified. Some scholars have tried to explore the effects of esportsterm·dom on humans, including its possible positive and negative effects: (i) esportsterm·dom can lead to the development of perceptual, attentional, cognitive, and social skills, the ability to manage tasks or information, self-regulated learning, and mental flexibility [ 76 , [92] , [93] , [94] , [95] ]; (ii) some esportsterm·dom can enhance the motivation of traditional sports [ 96 , 97 ]; (iii) excessive play leads to some physical issues such as eye fatigue, blurry vision, lower back pain, and tension headaches [ 7 , 98 ]; (iv) excessive play results in a variety of psychological problems, including depression, anxiety, tension, sleep disturbance, addiction, and aggressive affect and behaviors [ 7 , 98 , 99 ].

Discussion To provide more clarity on the variations of the concept of esportsterm·dom, based on the above results that different attributes belong to esportsterm·dom at different levels, we applied Sartori's “ladder of abstraction” to interpret the concept [ 100 ].

Ladder of abstraction Sartori came up with two indicators of the concept: (i) the concept's “extensionterm” – the range of cases that the concept can be applied in, and (ii) the concept's “intensionterm” – the number of attributes that the concept has [ 100 ]. These two indicators are negatively correlated. The higher degree of intensionterm a concept is, the more limited its application is. Conversely, the more limited attributes a concept has, the wider its application is [ 100 ].

Based on reviewed articles, with a higher degree of intensionterm, the definition of esportsterm·dom in a variety of articles tends to be professional esportsterm·key. Many of the proposed attributes that are often associated with esportsterm·dom definition, such as high level, organization, career, and audience, mostly point towards a professional form of esportsterm·dom. However, there must also be a “root definition” that captures the core attribute, which can be applied in a wider range of cases and travel through time and context [ 101 ]. Therefore, a “root definition” of esportsterm·dom can also be extracted from the commonalities and the most fundamental attributes of different types of esportsterm·dom, which can be applied in most contexts when referring to esportsterm·dom. The fundamental and core characteristics of esportsterm·dom, as derived from these definitions, lie in the competitivenessterm·key, the application of physical and mental skills, the use of communication and information technology, and the interaction between individuals. These characteristics have also achieved a high level of recognition and consensus across different definitions. On the other hand, some other features reflect the esportsterm·dom of a higher degree of intensionterm and have a narrower applicability. Fig. 4 integrates these characteristics and illustrates their hierarchical relationship. Specifically, live streaming esportsterm·dom, professional esportsterm·key, and mass esportsterm·dom will be concepts of a higher degree of intensionterm. Additionally, Table 4 illustrates the relationship between these attributes and these different categories of esportsterm·dom.

A framework of integrated esportsterm·dom attributes.

Comparison of different categories of esportsterm·dom.

Table 5 shows the comparison between esportsterm·dom and other related conceptsterm under the criterion. Exergamesterm·key and active video gamesterm·dom, for now, have not reached a professional level and have not been coordinated by different leagues and tournaments. Moreover, not all the exergamesterm·key or active video gamesterm·dom have to be competitive, and the goal of these kinds of games is more to entertain the players or for physical exercise, not to compete with opponents. From this perspective, it is more precise to conclude that exergamesterm·key or active video gamesterm·dom can be regarded as a new form of computer games or video games with higher intensity and more involved physical movement, which are, to some degree, different from current prevailing esportsterm·dom. Although some virtual sportsterm·dom have already appeared in professional esportsterm·key competitions, in terms of definition, we can see that only when the virtual sportsterm·dom reach certain standards of esportsterm·dom (competitive, multiplayer, etc.) will it be included in esportsterm·dom. The emergence of the concept of “physical esportsterm·dom” appears to indicate the situation [ [42] , [43] , [44] ].

Comparison between esportsterm·dom and related conceptsterm.

In sumpersName, this review will serve as a comprehensive summary of past discussions on esportsterm·dom. The framework and synthesis of existing definitions of esportsterm·dom presented in this paper will provide a reference standard for future research on esports-related topics. By identifying specific characteristics and themes from different definitions of esportsterm·dom, it helps us better differentiate esportsterm·dom from other activities, such as distinguishing esportsterm·dom players from general video game players. For example, the outlined criteria could further elaborate on why role-playing games should not be classified as esportsterm·dom. In role-playing games, the primary objective is not to defeat opponents or achieve victory. Instead, character development and immersive experiences in a virtual world are the key appeals of role-playing games, and it can also manifest as interaction between individuals and the virtual world instead of between people [ 7 , 102 ]. Furthermore, there are currently no esportsterm·dom events or organizations specifically dedicated to role-playing games. These attributes do not align with the core characteristics we have deduced from the definition of esportsterm·dom.

Additionally, this article also preliminarily explored the reasons why there is no widely recognized definition for esportsterm·dom in the current environment: Firstly, it is because there has been a significant growth in esports-related research only since 2020 [ 4 , 5 ]. The influx of researchers in the esportsterm·dom field within a short period may lead to differences in understanding and perspectives on esportsterm·dom. We also call for future scholars interested in esportsterm·dom to base their research on standardized criteria for defining and categorizing esports-related research subjects.

Secondly, there are conflicting and controversial points within current definitions of esportsterm·dom, and resolving these disputes still requires more theoretical and empirical support. Overall, these contradictions mainly revolve around the following points: 1) Whether only professional esportsterm·key can be considered esportsterm·dom, specifically encompassing aspects such as the presence of live streaming, audience and sponsorship, and the participation of highly skilled esportsterm·dom athletes. Furthermore, whether various other levels or scales of esportsterm·dom gaming activities or those with different purposes can be considered as esportsterm·dom. 2) Due to the different times when definitions came up, the forms of esportsterm·dom have undergone significant changes. In some definitions, esportsterm·dom is limited to computer games, but in the current industry, various forms of esportsterm·dom are recognized, including mobile games, motion-sensing games, and more [ 58 , [103] , [104] , [105] ]. 3) With advancements in technology, the traditional keyboard and mouse input method is no longer the only option. Full-body movement has also become one of the ways to interact with games, placing new demands on the skills and abilities of esportsterm·dom players. 4) Whether esportsterm·dom are limited to online or offline LAN-based competitions.

In this study, we also attempted to classify esportsterm·dom by considering the different characteristics of esportsterm·dom, making these existing divergent points in esportsterm·dom compatible within different categories of esportsterm·dom. This classification can also aid us in a systematic examination and advancement of esportsterm·dom as an established sport.

Thirdly, the form of esportsterm·dom is constantly evolving with technological advancements, and we are currently in a period of thriving growth in gaming and its associated technologies. This adds to the challenge of providing a comprehensive and objective definition of esportsterm·dom within a short timeframe. In addition to the divergences reflected in existing definitions, we can also anticipate the possibility of more divergences in the near future. For instance, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has been playing a significant role in games. We can see an increasing number of studies suggesting that AI technology is capable of creating opponents that are on par with human abilities [ [106] , [107] , [108] ]. Although currently, we recognize esportsterm·dom as competitions that occur between humans, once AI reaches a sufficient level of maturity, whether competitions between humans and AI can be regarded as esportsterm·dom will become an immediate and foreseeable controversy, similar to what we see in some existing intellectual sports [ [109] , [110] , [111] ].

Moreover, the subdivision and clarification of similar concepts in this study can help our future research study games or different types of esportsterm·dom more systematically. It also aids in understanding the current trends in the development of these games. For instance, distinctions between virtual sportsterm·dom and esportsterm·dom have been observed, but within the current esportsterm·dom industry, there are also commonalities and integration, such as the inclusion of Just Dance in international esportsterm·dom events. Additionally, establishing standardized terminology in the gaming field can avoid misuse in various studies and prevent misunderstandings of different research outcomes. Currently, there is a limited number of theoretical analyses on terms such as virtual sportsterm·dom and digital sportsterm·dom in the relevant literature, but as the popularity of these activities increases, especially with the International Olympic Committee's focus on virtual sportsterm·dom [ 112 , 113 ], the standardization of these terms will receive more attention. With the continuous development and popularization of the gaming industry, in future game research, we need to establish a standardized system of gaming terminology to standardize and promote these studies and help the public better understand and interpret the research findings.

Due to the limitation of searching only English literature in this paper, some discussions and research on esportsterm·dom from countries with well-developed esportsterm·dom industries and fields, such as China and South Korea, may be missing, resulting in gaps in a comprehensive understanding of esportsterm·dom. For example, there is the varying recognition and status of mobile games in the field of esportsterm·dom in Asian and Western countries [ 23 ]. In future research, it would be beneficial to include discussions from these countries that have more comprehensive developments in esportsterm·dom for a global perspective.

Limitations The limitations of this paper include: (1) Only papers in English were searched and analyzed, and some of the research from countries with well-developed esportsterm·dom industries may not have been included due to language; (2) Due to the controversies and lack of consensus surrounding esportsterm·dom, as well as its relatively new nature compared to the development of traditional sports, there remains a dearth of comprehensive theoretical and empirical evidence supporting the various viewpoints on esportsterm·dom. In this paper, we have focused on exploring specific issues related to the development of esportsterm·dom by drawing comparisons to traditional sports in terms of theory and industry development. As future research on esportsterm·dom becomes more comprehensive and systematic, these issues can be further investigated and discussed more thoroughly; (3) Esportsterm·dom and the technology involved in it are experiencing rapid development, and its structure and industry are also in a transition period towards specialization in which it is hard to predict a complete and accurate future form of esportsterm·dom.

Conclusion This article systematically collected and organized the adopted and accepted definitions in the field of esportsterm·dom. Through thematic codingterm, the attributes reflected in these definitions are extracted, and their commonalities and consensus are summarized. We proposed the essence of esportsterm·dom that can be applicable to a wide range of scenarios. In addition, we also identified specific contradictions and disagreements present in various definitions, which currently lack sufficient theoretical and practical evidence to resolve. By analyzing these discrepancies, we offered a preliminary explanation for the lack of consensus in the current understanding of esportsterm·dom. Drawing on theories and methodologies from traditional sports, we further proposed a classification of esportsterm·dom based on the purpose, participants, and skill level. Within this framework, certain contradictory themes or features achieve a certain level of compatibility. While we do not currently propose the concept of “school esportsterm·dom” similar to the one in traditional sports, there is a growing number of attempts to actively apply esportsterm·dom in education and universities, which are receiving increasing attention. Although these endeavors are still in their early stages, they show the potential. Additionally, under the guidelines of conceptual analysisterm·mth, we analyzed alternative terms and related conceptsterm of esportsterm·dom, and using the proposed esportsterm·dom framework, we identified commonalities and differences among these activities. We also observe overlapping areas or “gray zones” between these activities, resulting from the development of the gaming and esportsterm·dom industry, as well as related gaming technologies. Some of these activities are undergoing convergence.

It is important to acknowledge the dynamic nature of concepts. With advancements in the esportsterm·dom industry and technology, particularly in motion capture, AR, and VR, the scale and form of esportsterm·dom continue to expand. Consequently, in the near future, the understanding and definition of esportsterm·dom may require further refinement. Furthermore, while the majority of research and an increasing number of countries classify esportsterm·dom as a formal sport, there is also a need for further transparency and clarity regarding the definition of modern sports in this era.

The framework and synthesis of established esportsterm·dom definitions presented in this paper can serve as a valuable reference for future research in the field. Moreover, the subdivision and clarification of related conceptsterm contribute to a more systematic approach to studying games and different forms of esportsterm·dom. With the ongoing growth and development of the gaming industry and related scientific research, it becomes essential to establish a standardized system of gaming terminology to promote and standardize research, as well as enhance public understanding and interpretation of research findings.

Funding statement This study has received no funding.

Data availability statement Data included in article/supp. material/referenced in article. The complete raw dataset will be provided upon request.

CRediT authorship contribution statement Di TangpersName: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Raymond Kim-wai SumpersName: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration. MinghuipersName Li: Methodology, Conceptualization. RuisipersName Ma: Methodology, Formal analysis. Peichi ChungpersName: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Ray Wai-keungpersName Ho: Formal analysis, Data curation.

Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Footnotes Supplementary data The following are the Supplementary data to this article: References Associated Data Supplementary Materials Data Availability Statement Data included in article/supp. material/referenced in article. The complete raw dataset will be provided upon request.