Spiritual Intelligence: A Scoping Review with Concept Analysis on the Key to Spiritual Care. — TEI-tagged view

Cristina Teixeira PintopersName, Ângela CoelhopersName, Lúcia GuedespersName, Rui NunespersName, Sara PintopersName (2026date). “Spiritual Intelligence: A Scoping Review with Concept Analysis on the Key to Spiritual Care..” Journal of Intelligencetitle·j.

Object of study — spiritual intelligenceterm·dom

Research question — how the concept of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom has evolved and how it should now be defined

Contribution — an updated definition of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom with equanimityterm·dom and life wisdomterm·dom as new core attributes

Full text — tagged

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Spiritual Intelligenceterm·dom: A Scoping Review with Concept Analysisterm·key on the Key to Spiritual Care.

Abstract This study explores the concept of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom from an evolutionary perspective, providing a comprehensive and updated definition. A concept analysisterm·key was conducted following Rodgers’ Evolutionary Method, supported by a scoping review in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology. Studies explicitly addressing spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, regardless of population, setting, or discipline, were included across quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods, and review designs. Four databases—PsycINFO, PubMed Central, Scopus, and Web of Science—were searched for publications up to 15 December 2025, using the term “spiritual intelligenceterm·dom.” One-hundred-twelve articles met inclusion criteria and were analyzed through narrative synthesis and inductive analytical processing. Spiritual intelligenceterm·dom emerged as a construct encompassing adaptive cognition, higher consciousness, problem management, and personal growth, often referred to as Spiritual Quotientterm·dom or Existential Intelligenceterm·dom. Antecedents included self and transcendental awarenessterm·dom, existential questioning, and search for meaning and purpose, while consequents comprised enhanced health, performance, self-awareness, and humanitarian orientation. Defining attributes were equanimityterm·dom, life-wisdom, transcendental awarenessterm·dom, spiritual consciousnessterm·dom, meaning and purpose creation, and existential questioning. This evolutionary analysis traced the concept from theory to application, revealing its positive influence in daily life. Equanimityterm·dom and life-wisdom were identified as core attributes, highlighting implications for training and integration of spiritual care in professional practice.

1. Introduction The foundational concepts of cognitive intelligence ( Howard, 1993 ) and emotional intelligenceterm·dom ( Salovey & Mayer, 1990 ) have profoundly shaped our understanding of human intellect. However, while these traditional frameworks effectively illuminate our analytical ability and interpersonal skills, they may not fully encompass the depth of human experience or the innate search for meaning and purpose ( Checa & Fernández-Berrocal, 2015 ). Thus, a broader perspective on intelligence is needed: one that encompasses not only ‘how’ we think and relate, but also ‘why’ we seek meaning and purpose. This has led to the exploration of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as a distinct dimension of human intelligence.

Although definitions vary, studies applying the concept commonly describe spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as the ability to integrate spiritual or existential beliefs into daily functioning. For example, Babanazari et al. ( 2012 ) help understand spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as a meaning-making capacity that supports coping and psychological adjustment; Ajele et al. ( 2021 ) explore it as a set of values-based competencies that enhance comfort and well-being; and Amirian and Fazilat-Pour ( 2016 ) describe spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as the ability to apply spiritual principles to personal and interpersonal daily life challenges. These applications illustrate how spiritual intelligenceterm·dom is understood and operationalized across contexts, highlighting its relevance for expanding traditional models of intelligence and enriching approaches to human well-being and care.

Since the late nineties there has been a growing recognition of spiritualityterm·dom as an important source of adaptability and improved mental performance through many quantitative studies acknowledging the impact of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom in enhancing various daily life interactions as well as being a trainable asset for better mental and general health ( PintopersName et al., 2024 ). This evolution in our understanding has prompted the scientific community to conceptualize spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as a distinct dimension of human intelligence relevant not only to our psychological well-being, but also to practical aspects of daily life, including the provision and experience of care ( Aliabadi et al., 2021 ; Ghalaychi et al., 2019 ; Kaur et al., 2013 ; Riahi et al., 2018 ). Indeed, as contemporary healthcare increasingly emphasizes person-centered approaches ( Aliabadi et al., 2021 ; PintopersName & PintopersName, 2020 ), integrating spiritual intelligenceterm·dom into care practices offers meaningful opportunities to enhance comfort, coping, and overall well-being.

By recognizing and actively fostering spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, healthcare professionals, patients, and informal caregivers can build more empathetic, resilient, and purpose-driven therapeutic relationships ( Aliabadi et al., 2021 ; Kaur et al., 2013 ). Practical efforts to advance the conceptualization and measurement of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom therefore hold significant promise for improving both the quality and the humanity of healthcare delivery.

2. Background The discussion of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom emerges from the early premise that one’s spiritual resources contribute to better daily functioning ( Emmons, 2000 ). With this in mind, different authors began to conceptualize this capability within the multiple intelligence model perspectives ( Gardner, 1983 ). This approach positions spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as an intelligence focused on the ability to engage with matters of meaning, values and purpose ( Zohar & Marshall, 2000 ), and to explore existential questions about life and interconnectedness ( Noble, 2001 ), while also integrating spiritual aspects into cognitive and emotional daily life matters ( Vaughan, 2002 ; Wolman, 2001 ), and promoting personal growth, self-awareness, compassion and integrity ( Wigglesworth, 2012 ).

Further insight on the spiritual intelligenceterm·dom concept brought along more structured frameworks with different dimensions or themes attributed to this kind of intelligence, such as critical existential thinking, personal meaning production, transcendental awarenessterm·dom (as in meta-awareness and a sense of interconnectedness) and conscious state expansion (as in heightened states of awareness), proposed by ( King & DeCicco, 2009 ), or consciousness, grace, meaning, transcendence, truth, serenity and interconnectedness, suggested by ( Amram & Dryer, 2008 ), amongst other perspectives.

Although spiritual intelligenceterm·dom is frequently discussed within spiritual or religious contexts, it is important to clearly differentiate it from spiritualityterm·dom, religionterm·dom, and emotional intelligenceterm·dom. PintopersName et al. highlight that spiritualityterm·dom refers broadly to personal beliefs, values, and existential meaning-making, while religionterm·dom involves structured traditions, doctrines, and communal practices ( PintopersName et al., 2024 ). Emotional intelligenceterm·dom, in contrast, concerns the recognition and regulation of emotions in oneself and others, facilitating interpersonal relationships ( Salovey & Mayer, 1990 ). Spiritual intelligenceterm·dom is distinguished from all three by its focus on the capacity to derive meaning, purpose, and value-based insight from all lived experiences and existential questions, enabling individuals to integrate these insights into decision-making and personal growth, thus conciliating spiritualityterm·dom with daily life experiences for better adaptability ( PintopersName et al., 2024 ).

Despite many theorists clarifying spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as a distinct, although related, concept from spiritualityterm·dom and its independence from religious affiliation or practices, it is frequent the misuse of terminology and the connection of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom to religiosity, conceptualizing it as the capacity to comprehend religious issues ( Saeedi et al., 2014 ) to relate to one’s deity ( Anwar et al., 2020 ) or to utilize religious and spiritual patterns in everyday life ( Imani et al., 2021 ).

These inconsistencies reinforce the need to further clarify the spiritual intelligenceterm·dom concept to guarantee its intercultural universality.

With spiritual intelligenceterm·dom being a developing, multidimensional concept, this evolutionary perspective is pivotal to analyzing its history as well as its current state and ongoing challenges across different cultural and disciplinary contexts, while also pointing toward future research directions that deepen our understanding of this complex human capacity.

Over the past two decades, interest in spiritual intelligenceterm·dom has grown steadily in education, health and psychology, but existing models still diverge in how they specify its core attributes, distinguish it from related constructs (e.g., spiritualityterm·dom, religiousness, personality) and justify its status as an ‘intelligence’. At the same time, empirical studies increasingly associate spiritual intelligenceterm·dom with resilience, coping and mental health ( Ajele et al., 2021 ; Hatami et al., 2019 ; Kaur et al., 2013 ; Khosravi & Nikmanesh, 2014 ; Narayanan & Jose, 2011 ; Parattukudi et al., 2021 ; PintopersName et al., 2024 ; Polemikou & Vantarakis, 2019 ), which has intensified theoretical debate while leaving key conceptual issues unresolved, with new attributes, applications, and theoretical frameworks emerging since the initial proposed definitions. This has led to conceptual fragmentation and terminological drift, underscoring the need for an updated, evidence-based synthesis.

Building on this understanding, this study aims to provide a comprehensive and updated definition of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom based on its historical trajectory and contemporary patterns of use as well as on its cultural and contextual variability, thereby enhancing future research and measurement initiatives. More specifically, it aims to explore the concept’s evolution in recent years to propose a refined conceptualization, one well-suited for assessing spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as an outcome.

3. Data Sources We conducted a concept analysisterm·key study using Rodgers’ Evolutionary Method ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ), an approach that views concepts as dynamic entities shaped by context and time. This inductive method systematically explores how a concept is used and understood in the literature, emphasizing its development rather than seeking a fixed definition. The method involves identifying key attributes, antecedents, consequences, related terms, and contextual variations, thereby allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the concept’s evolution and current applications ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ).

To operationalize Rodgers’ method, we specifically conducted a scoping review following the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for scoping reviews ( Peters et al., 2020 ). A scoping review is methodologically aligned with Rodgers’ evolutionary concept analysisterm·key because it enables comprehensive mapping of a concept’s attributes, antecedents, and consequences across diverse contexts. Its flexible yet rigorous structure allows the inclusion of empirical, theoretical, and gray literature, supporting the exploration of conceptual boundaries and historical changes over time.

A scoping review methodology was preferred over a systematic review since the strength of the results were not the main aim of our study and it would likely exclude relevant theoretical papers that are important in clarifying the concepts’ evolution. A narrative review, on the other hand, would not grant the methodological transparency and reproducibility that Rodger’s method requires. Thus, by capturing the breadth, variability, and evolution of the spiritual intelligenceterm·dom concept, while maintaining transparent methods, this scoping review enhances both the rigor and the exploratory nature required by Rodgers’ framework. Data were reported according to the PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) ( Page et al., 2021 ).

We included studies involving participants of any age, background, or setting. To ensure conceptual clarity, only studies that explicitly addressed spiritual intelligenceterm·dom were selected. Studies that focused solely on general spiritualityterm·dom, without direct reference to spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, were excluded. We considered literature from a broad range of contexts and disciplines, including but not limited to psychology, healthcare, and education, to capture the diversity of settings in which the concept is applied.

Regarding study types, we included quantitative studies that employed validated instruments for assessing spiritual intelligenceterm·dom and presented reproducible methodologies, reviews, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies. Editorials, conference abstracts, theoretical papers, and studies lacking sufficient methodological detail were excluded.

3.1. Search Strategy and Study Selection We conducted a comprehensive search across four databases: PsycINFO, PubMed Central, Scopus, and Web of Science, using the search term ‘spiritual intelligenceterm·dom.’ The search strategy was tailored to each database and limited to studies published in English, French, Portuguese or Spanish, up to 15 December 2025.

After the initial search, all references were imported into Mendeley ® for deduplication. Two independent reviewers screened titles and abstracts against the established inclusion criteria. Following this, three reviewers conducted a thorough review of the full-text. Disagreements were resolved through discussion or with a third reviewer.

3.2. Data Extraction and Analysis Data were extracted from the included studies using a predesigned extraction form developed by the review team. We independently extracted key study characteristics, such as authorship, year of publication, country, participant demographics, study settings, objectives, methodologies, and the instruments used to assess spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, including their reported reliability and validity. We also collected findings relevant to the concept of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, focusing on how it was defined, measured, and contextualized.

Following data extraction, we performed a narrative synthesis of the collected information, guided by Rodgers’ Evolutionary Method of concept analysisterm·key ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ). This inductive analytical process involved systematically identifying and clustering the concept’s defining attributes, examining its antecedents (events or factors preceding the concept’s occurrence), and consequences (outcomes or effects of the concept) as described in the literature. We also analyzed surrogate terms and contextual variations that indicated how the concept’s understanding or application shifted across different disciplines, populations, or over time. The final step involved formulating a refined conceptualization of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, incorporating these essential elements and accounting for relevant contextual factors, thereby providing a definition well-suited for its assessment as an outcome.

To further consolidate the data initially extracted and inductively coded by three independent human reviewers, we incorporated an artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted screening of the selected studies ( Bennis & Mouwafaq, 2025 ). Specifically, a Large Language Model was used to perform a confirmatory analysis following the initial manual coding. This triangulated approach prioritized the nuanced insights of human interpretation, while harnessing the breadth and efficiency of AI. Any novel or divergent codes generated by the AI were systematically reviewed and discussed by two human reviewers. In cases of persistent disagreement or uncertainty regarding these AI-generated codes, a third reviewer was consulted to reach consensus. This process aimed to enhance the robustness, transparency, and validity of the final dataset.

All conceptual terms reported in this analysis emerged inductively from the included literature. While some interpretive synthesis was required to compile how these attributes were organized and articulated, no attribute was introduced by the authors alone; each reflects patterns of meaning, language, or conceptual emphasis present across the analyzed sources.

4. Overview of the Concept Our searches of electronic databases identified 883 hits excluding duplicates. After screening, 473 hits were excluded, which identified 327 eligible studies. This resulted in 112 included studies ( Supplementary Table S1 ). The results of this search and study inclusion process were reported according to the PRISMA-ScR flow diagram ( Figure 1 ) ( Page et al., 2021 ).

The included studies ( Table 1 ) were published between 2005 and 2025 and originated predominantly from geographical areas where spiritualityterm·dom is deeply rooted into the social system and daily life, such as the Middle-East ( n = 53), Asia ( n = 19) and Europe ( n = 19), despite the original theoretical works on the spiritual intelligenceterm·dom concept originating mainly from North America ( Emmons, 2000 ; King & DeCicco, 2009 ; Noble, 2001 ; Vaughan, 2002 ; Wigglesworth, 2012 ; Wolman, 2001 ).

Most studies were quantitative ( n = 94) and investigated spiritual intelligenceterm·dom in different settings, such as healthcare settings ( n = 46, predominantly addressing spiritual intelligenceterm·dom in nurses and patients), universities ( n = 24, mainly focusing on students and some also including employees), schools/education ( n = 12, evaluating both students and teachers), or studies open to the general population ( n = 19) aiming to broadly characterize or validate spiritual intelligenceterm·dom measuring instruments.

In the selected quantitative studies, David King’s ( King & DeCicco, 2009 ) Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventoryterm·mth—24 items were the most widely used instrument for measuring spiritual intelligenceterm·dom ( n = 61).

4.1. References of the Concept and Areas of Application The references of a concept concern the contexts in which it has been applied ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ). From the large variety of study settings described in Table 1 , going from education to healthcare, organizations to sports or even military, one can recognize the wide usage of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom in daily life.

After close to a decade of theoretical development of the spiritual intelligenceterm·dom concept, the first quantitative studies started to take place ( King et al., 2012 ; King & DeCicco, 2009 ; Martin & Hafer, 2009 ), initially still in the academic setting, targeting students and general population for better characterization of baseline spiritual intelligenceterm·dom and measuring instruments’ validation but as the potential benefit of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom in mental health started to raise interest, studies in healthcare settings and aiming to study high-burdened professions as nursing or military workers soon followed, concentrating on the resilience, stress and spiritual coping benefits of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom.

The healthcare setting kept a strong interest in spiritual intelligenceterm·dom throughout time, expanding the research of its implications not only for the healthcare workers but also for patients with different health requirements (diabetics ( Ajele et al., 2021 ; Rahmanian et al., 2018 , 2019 ; Rafiei et al., 2023 ), coronary heart disease patients ( Nekouei et al., 2014 ), pregnant women ( Abdollahpour & Khosravi, 2018 ; Hatami et al., 2019 ), recovering addicts ( Shahbakhsh & Moallemi, 2013 ; Rajabi et al., 2023 ), amongst others) centering on spiritual intelligenceterm·dom’s potential towards better health outcomes, self-care and quality of care. With the COVID-19 pandemic’s deep impact on the healthcare system raising important ethical dilemmas and mental health issues amongst healthcare professionals as well as patients, this interest grew significantly in the aftermath ( Zamani et al., 2023 ; Yadollahpour et al., 2023 ; Maghool et al., 2023 ).

With growing evidence on spiritual intelligenceterm·dom’s impact on communication and relational skills ( Geram, 2016 ; Mosavinezhad et al., 2019 ; Mehralian et al., 2023 ), the study settings progressed to explore organizations (especially focusing on the benefits spiritual intelligenceterm·dom might bring to leadership and employee commitment ( Dargahi & Veysi, 2021 ; Khastavaneh et al., 2018 )) and the educational domain (studying spiritual intelligenceterm·dom impact on teachers’ and students’ teaching/learning strategies and dealing with the work/school stressors ( Abdolrezapour & Alipour, 2021 ; Pishghadam et al., 2022 ; Singla et al., 2021 )).

Thus, different areas of exercise of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom were studied across various populations all around the world and diverse cultural settings and religious beliefs, as reported on Table 1 , contributing to a deeper and better understanding of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom through time and a growing impact of this concept concerning health care, educational and organizational development and practices as well as policy making.

Our analysis identified as major areas in which spiritual intelligenceterm·dom can be exploited: adaptative cognition processes, achieving elevated states of consciousness, problem management, personal growth, nurturing a humanitarian character, existentialism thinking, interpersonal relationships, mental health and work performance. Further details on the analysis of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom applications are described in Supplementary Table S2 .

4.2. Concept Evolution From its early conceptualizations, the understanding of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom concept has evolved significantly. Since the majority of the initial theoretical work on spiritual intelligenceterm·dom did not comply with our study inclusion criteria, we provide an overview of the concept evolution throughout this period.

Considering a multiple intelligences model approach to cognition ( Gardner, 1983 ), spiritual intelligenceterm·dom advocates attempted to extend models of human cognition beyond traditional cognitive and emotional domains. At the turn of the century, several authors independently proposed that spirituality-related capacities might constitute a distinct domain of intelligence. Zohar and Marshall framed spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as the ability to integrate rational and emotional processes to address existential questions and derive meaning from experience; despite needing voluntary intellectual processing, spiritual intelligenceterm·dom highly relies on personal beliefs and experiences, more than linguistic or logical data ( Zohar & Marshall, 2000 ). In the same period, Emmons argued that spiritual intelligenceterm·dom should be understood as an adaptive problem-solving capacity that uses spiritual information to enhance functioning ( Emmons, 2000 ). Shortly thereafter, Vaughan emphasized transcendental awarenessterm·dom and higher levels of consciousness as core components of the construct, further expanding its scope ( Vaughan, 2002 ).

Later, King & DeCicco proposed a 4-dimensional model of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom comprising critical existential thinking, transcendental awarenessterm·dom, personal meaning production and conscious state expansion, contemplating the major dimensions previously addressed ( King & DeCicco, 2009 ).

As the field progressed, researchers sought to clarify how spiritual intelligenceterm·dom differed from and interacted with other forms of intelligence. King and DeCicco further conceptualized spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as enabling a compassionate and values-driven response to others’ distress, thus transcending the emotional intelligenceterm·dom’s action-limited ability to empathetically mirror emotions ( King & DeCicco, 2009 ).

Expanding on this, Wigglesworth proposed an equanimous and humanitarian demeanor as key expressions of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, emphasizing the ability to keep inner and outer serenity and remaining calm, wise and compassionate in any given circumstance ( Wigglesworth, 2012 ).

Taken together, these contributions illustrate an evolving concept that has moved from initial meaning-making and existential framing toward a broader, more operationalized understanding encompassing awareness, compassion, adaptive functioning, and integrative consciousness.

4.3. Surrogate Terms Surrogate terms present as alternative terminology for a given concept ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ). In our analysis, spiritual intelligenceterm·dom was frequently referred to as spiritual quotientterm·dom or existential intelligenceterm·dom, linking to the inherent cognitive process involved and the underlying multiple intelligence framework ( Gardner, 1983 ).

Also, expressions as spiritual well-being were used, conveying the connection between spiritual intelligenceterm·dom and better life adjustment. A state of heightened consciousness was another of the identified surrogate terms, relating to the aspects of consciousness and awareness strongly associated with spiritual intelligenceterm·dom. Further details on surrogate terms analysis are described in Supplementary Material Table S3 .

4.4. Related Concepts Related concepts are frequently associated with the studied concept, usually sharing some common attributes ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ).

Spiritualityterm·dom, or in a broader sense, the spiritual experience or expertise is the most related concept to spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, its intimate connection coming from the premise that spiritual intelligenceterm·dom draws from spiritualityterm·dom and self-consciousness and by combining it with deep cognitive processes that connect multiple intelligences achieves better personal outcomes in different life domains, such as health, performance, interpersonal relationships and organizational development.

For full details on related terms analysis refer to Supplementary Material Table S4 .

4.5. Antecedents of the Concept The antecedents of a concept are the premises in which it lays, the conditions required for it to occur ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ).

Deriving from the spiritual intelligenceterm·dom conceptualizations proposed in the various articles on our review, it is widely consensual that for spiritual intelligenceterm·dom to develop, it is required that the individual is connected to his spiritual-self and develops self and transcendental awarenessterm·dom, this is usually associated to a deep concern for existential questions and a search for meaning and purpose that derive from higher cognition. Spiritual intelligenceterm·dom also reflects self-investment and emotional awareness, usually associated with a humanitarian alignment.

Antecedents’ full analysis is described in Supplementary Material Table S5 .

4.6. Consequents of the Concept Consequents are the byproducts of a concept, the outcomes of its application and development ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ).

Since most of the selected studies in this concept analysisterm·key were quantitative correlational studies ( Table 1 ) with proper quality assessment of methodology, they provide invaluable evidence on the consequents of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom known to date and open way for future research that may add to the concept’s evolutionary process further ahead.

Spiritual intelligenceterm·dom development and application was associated with better general and especially mental health ( Ajele et al., 2021 ; Amirian & Fazilat-Pour, 2016 ; Bhandari et al., 2023 ; Dami et al., 2019 ; Nekouei et al., 2014 ; Parattukudi et al., 2021 , better work performance ( Ahmadi et al., 2021 ; Imani et al., 2021 ; Rahmawaty et al., 2021 ), humanitarian orientation ( Kaur et al., 2013 ; Riahi et al., 2018 ), deep self-consciousness ( Hojat & Badiyepeymaiejahromi, 2021 ; Rahmanian et al., 2018 ), a meaning and purposeful life ( Babanazari et al., 2012 ; King & DeCicco, 2009 ), better organizational development ( Alamanda et al., 2021 ; Anwar & Gani, 2015 ; Dargahi & Veysi, 2021 ; Singla et al., 2021 ) and interpersonal relationships ( Aliabadi et al., 2021 ; Geram, 2016 ; Rahmawaty et al., 2021 ), and better intellectual performance ( Gera et al., 2021 ) and problem management ( Imani et al., 2021 ).

Detailed consequents’ analysis available in Supplementary Material Table S6 .

4.7. Defining Attributes In order to achieve a revised definition of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, it is essential to first assess its key attributes, the main characteristics that define and distinguishes the concept ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ).

From the inductive analysis of the selected studies, we were able to produce, by a final interpretative synthesis process of the gathered data, six main domains for spiritual intelligenceterm·dom: equanimityterm·dom, life wisdomterm·dom, transcendental awarenessterm·dom, spiritual consciousnessterm·dom, meaning and purpose creation, and existential questioning.

Spiritual intelligenceterm·dom is characterized by several key aspects. Firstly, it encompasses equanimityterm·dom, reflecting the strong inner-coherence, integrity, and inner-balance that allows individuals to remain calm, wise, and compassionate in any given circumstance. This attribute was consistently reported in studies examining resilience and emotional regulation in spiritual contexts ( Ajele et al., 2021 ; Hatami et al., 2019 ; Khosravi & Nikmanesh, 2014 ; King & DeCicco, 2009 ; Martin & Hafer, 2009 ; Polemikou et al., 2019 ).

Another crucial facet is life wisdomterm·dom, or the ability to navigate struggles with perseverance and a humanitarian approach to problems. Evidence for this attribute emerged mainly from studies describing reflective problem-solving and ethical decision-making ( Amirian & Fazilat-Pour, 2016 ; Babanazari et al., 2012 ).

Furthermore, spiritual intelligenceterm·dom involves transcendental awarenessterm·dom, concerning the capacity to perceive what lies beyond oneself, including the ability to ascend to different levels of consciousness and attain a holistic or meta-view. Several studies highlighted participants’ experiences of connectedness and elevated consciousness ( Ajele et al., 2021 ; King & DeCicco, 2009 ).

It also incorporates spiritual consciousnessterm·dom, which enables higher cognition and the intellectual integration of spiritual experiences, as supported by research emphasizing reflective and meaning-contemplation processes ( Ajele et al., 2021 ; Geram, 2016 ).

The creation of meaning and purpose is another vital element, both from daily life experiences and in a long-term perspective of life goals, being widely reported in multiple studies ( Babanazari et al., 2012 ; Badrudin et al., 2021 ; King & DeCicco, 2009 ; Parattukudi et al., 2021 ).

Finally, spiritual intelligenceterm·dom pertains to the ability for deep existential questioning and a profound concern for knowledge, also a recurrent theme across literature ( Badrudin et al., 2021 ; King & DeCicco, 2009 ; Polemikou et al., 2019 ).

Further details on the attributes analysis are described in Supplementary Material Table S7 .

4.8. Model Case According to Rodgers’ evolutionary approach to concept analysisterm·key ( Rodgers & Knafl, 2000 ), a model case serves to concretely illustrate the defining attributes of the concept in real life and that have been identified through the analysis process.

Mrs. Diana is a family caregiver supporting her husband through advanced illness within an interdisciplinary palliative care setting. Her journey provides a clear, concrete illustration of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom woven into daily care and collaboration with nursing and medical professionals.

Mrs. Diana demonstrates equanimityterm·dom and calm, particularly in moments when her husband becomes more anxious or when unexpected symptoms arise. For example, when he feels more anxious, Mrs. Diana sits by his side, maintains a gentle tone, and takes a few deep breaths together with him before seeking help from the palliative care team. Nurses and physicians notice that she listens first, expresses understanding, and avoids reacting with panic, thus fostering a reassuring atmosphere even during periods of crisis.

She acts with integrity and purposeful communication, sharing her husband’s values and preferences with the team and ensuring these are reflected in the ongoing integrated individual care planning.

Mrs. Diana’s adaptability and resilience became clear when treatment plans needed to be changed, such as transitioning from active interventions to comfort-focused measures. She accepted these transitions without resentment, supporting her husband and participating actively in discussions with the interdisciplinary team to identify new ways to maintain his comfort and quality of life at home, the place where he prefers to be cared for and eventually die. Her ability to find meaning and motivation in her caregiving role is seen when she creates small daily rituals, such as sharing moments of gratitude with her husband and the nursing staff.

Mrs. Diana works closely with nurses and the medical team to facilitate spiritual and emotional well-being. For example, together they arrange times for quiet reflection, music, or favorite readings, respecting her husband’s spiritual needs alongside clinical requirements.

Throughout the process, Mrs. Diana’s humanitarian conduct and interpersonal harmony are evident in the trust she builds: she thanks the staff, acknowledges each person’s contribution, and encourages open discussion of difficult topics, including end-of-life preferences.

When discussions turn to prognosis and existential questions, Mrs. Diana’s shows transcendental awarenessterm·dom as she helps her husband articulate his hopes and fears honestly, and cultivates an atmosphere where family, nurses, and doctors can all reflect together on what matters most, recognizing the shared humanity in these profound conversations.

In summary, Mrs. Diana’s actions consistently demonstrate the defining attributes of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom within an interdisciplinary, person-centered palliative care context. Her approach promotes dignity, resilience, and holistic comfort, supported and amplified by the collaborative practice of nurses and physicians.

4.9. Definition of the Concept Rodgers’ method assumes that concepts are dynamic and continually changing; thus, revising the definition of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom at this point in time is but a summative expression of the concept’s dominant features as known, and not intended to be final.

Based on the attributes consistently identified across the dataset and overall characteristics repeatedly linked to those attributes ( Figure 2 ), we defined spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as a distinct, unifying, and trainable intelligence characterized by the capacity to actively derive meaning, purpose, and values from lived experiences and existential questions. This intelligence involves transcendental awarenessterm·dom and spiritual consciousnessterm·dom, enabling higher cognition and the intellectual integration of spiritual insights. Furthermore, spiritual intelligenceterm·dom fosters equanimityterm·dom, life wisdomterm·dom, and a humanitarian approach by allowing individuals to effectively utilize spiritual resources for problem-solving and daily interaction, thereby transforming spiritualityterm·dom into action.

5. Discussion Despite the effort to include multiple language literature in this analysis, the exclusion of Arabic, African and Asian native languages may limit to some extent the cultural diversity of our findings.

Nevertheless, we were able to achieve a worldwide representation of evidence through a broad time frame, which we believe is a strength in this evolutionary perspective over spiritual intelligenceterm·dom.

Since the concept is rather recent, we were able to gather and successfully explore literature from all fields of knowledge, giving this research a broad-spectrum approach to the concept of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, allowing for a comprehensive review of its development through time.

The geographical distribution discrepancies of the studies should also be noted, as they highlight practical differences in the integration of spiritualityterm·dom and spiritual intelligenceterm·dom in daily life. Oriental cultures, where spiritualityterm·dom and religiosity are heavily linked to the quotidian life and even governments, show higher interest in researching the impact of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom and seem keener to tend to the spiritual-self. On the other hand, Occidental cultures where most governments are laic and the biomedical model originated and is still deeply rooted in many aspects of society ( Hewa & Hetherington, 1995 ), the spiritual dimension still struggles to be seen, despite the recognition of its relevance and the recent consideration put into integrating this dimension in WHO’s health definition ( Peng-Keller et al., 2022 ).

More than focusing on the early theoretical conceptualization of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, this analysis prioritized field-research, and empirical applications drawn from it, in order to refine and update the concept in a more functional perspective.

Spiritual intelligenceterm·dom research was significantly amplified by the development of measuring instruments ( Amram & Dryer, 2008 ; King & DeCicco, 2009 ), enabling quantitative analysis of impact and correlational investigation. This new-found evidence brought to light new outcomes in the spiritual intelligenceterm·dom sphere of influence and confirmed the efficiency of interventions towards spiritual intelligenceterm·dom enhancement ( PintopersName et al., 2023 , 2024 ).

More recent studies further support the relevance and applicability of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom by demonstrating significant associations to moral intelligence, forgivingness and personality traits, reinforcing the construct’s links to ethical functioning, meaning-making, and personal development ( Dacka & Rydz, 2023 ; Mróz et al., 2023 ). Also, in a more conceptual approach, Amram reviewed accumulated empirical and theoretical evidence, reinforcing our findings that validate spiritual intelligenceterm·dom based on its adaptability, cross-cultural validation, and neurological correlates, while also sharing ongoing challenges related to model convergence and measurement consistency ( Amram, 2022 ). Although spiritual intelligenceterm·dom has been discussed in many contexts, no formal concept analysisterm·key has, to our knowledge, been published to date, making this review of antecedents and consequents truly insightful of the influence domain of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom.

Concerning antecedents, the notion that awareness, spiritual experiences, existentialism and emotional self-knowledge may precede spiritual intelligenceterm·dom can be major findings towards better targeted interventions ( Ajele et al., 2021 ; Anwar et al., 2020 ; Augusty & Mathew, 2020 ; Dami et al., 2019 ; Imani et al., 2021 ; Khosravi & Nikmanesh, 2014 ; King et al., 2012 ; Parattukudi et al., 2021 ; Saeedi et al., 2014 ). Meanwhile, understanding that self-investment and seeking meaning and value are a driving force towards enhanced spiritual intelligenceterm·dom may help to understand how to achieve higher engagement ( Abdolrezapour & Alipour, 2021 ; Bhandari et al., 2023 ; Kaur et al., 2013 ; Parattukudi et al., 2021 ; Rahmanian et al., 2018 ).

On the other side, consequents as positive health impact ( Amirian & Fazilat-Pour, 2016 ; Badrudin et al., 2021 ; Parattukudi et al., 2021 ), better work performance ( Martin & Hafer, 2009 ; Rahmawaty et al., 2021 ; Rani et al., 2013 ; Riahi et al., 2018 ), higher organizational development ( Anwar & Gani, 2015 ; Dargahi & Veysi, 2021 ; Gera et al., 2021 ; Prabhu et al., 2020 ) and enhanced interpersonal relationships ( Anwar & Gani, 2015 ; Geram, 2016 ; Mosavinezhad et al., 2019 ) are outcomes that can be easily measured to determine efficiency of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom development. These consequents also carry great policy weight since they can advocate for the benefits of investing in spiritual intelligenceterm·dom training of professionals in many different areas of activity, especially in those where stress and burn-out are more worrisome and when humanitarian orientation is crucial, such as healthcare, education and organizational leadership ( Dargahi & Veysi, 2021 ; Gera et al., 2021 ; Hojat & Badiyepeymaiejahromi, 2021 ; Kaur et al., 2013 ; Pishghadam et al., 2022 ; Polemikou & Vantarakis, 2019 ; Prabhu et al., 2020 ; Rani et al., 2013 ; Singla et al., 2021 ).

Another important addition of this evolutionary concept analysisterm·key is the notion that internal consistency is fundamental to spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, thus, equanimityterm·dom integrates the proposed definition as a core attribute, encompassing such consistency as well as a peaceful, trustful demeanor that projects from the individual to its surrounding context.

The notion that spiritual intelligent people can remain serene, wise and compassionate through challenging situations was suggested early on ( Wigglesworth, 2012 ) but not consistently integrated in the concept definitions of different authors ( King & DeCicco, 2009 ; Vaughan, 2002 ; Zohar & Marshall, 2000 ). This evolutionary concept analysisterm·key reinforces the claim that equanimityterm·dom is a cornerstone attribute of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom.

Life wisdomterm·dom also emerged as a novel attribute in this concept analysisterm·key. In this study, it is operationally defined as a combined psychological and spiritual capacity that grows from lived experience; it reflects the ability to navigate personal and interpersonal challenges with perseverance, discernment, and a humanitarian orientation. By integrating psychological elements (such as reflective judgment, emotional maturity, and adaptive coping), with spiritual elements (like meaning-making, ethical sensibility, and compassion), this combined capacity enables individuals to view hardship as an opportunity for growth, maintain a macro perspective in face of adversity, and respond to problems with compassion, ethical awareness, and a commitment to the wellbeing of others.

The six key attributes identified in this concept analysisterm·key: equanimityterm·dom, life wisdomterm·dom, transcendental awarenessterm·dom, spiritual consciousnessterm·dom, meaning and purpose creation, and existential questioning, partially overlap with constructs already assessed by existing instruments such as the SISRI-24 ( King & DeCicco, 2009 ), the most frequently used instrument in spiritual intelligenceterm·dom research to date ( PintopersName et al., 2024 ). However, the newly identified attributes of equanimityterm·dom and life wisdomterm·dom are not represented in this instrument, highlighting a gap in this valuable measurement tool. This mismatch suggests that while SISRI-24 addresses core dimensions of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, it may not fully operationalize its broader, evolving conceptualization.

This problem extends to other spiritual intelligenceterm·dom instruments, as for instance: Wigglesworth has somewhat reflected these new attributes in her proposed instrument while not contemplating matters of meaning and existential questioning ( Wigglesworth, 2012 ); on another hand Amram & Dryer’s instrument, approaches some aspects of equanimityterm·dom but leaves out the newly identified life wisdomterm·dom attribute ( Amram & Dryer, 2008 ).

These findings underscore the need for further development or adaptation of assessment instruments to ensure they comprehensively capture the full range of evolving spiritual intelligenceterm·dom attributes identified in the recent literature.

Overall, contemporary research continues to emphasize spiritual intelligenceterm·dom as a trainable, outcome-relevant construct, while simultaneously underscoring the need for clearer conceptual integration across models and instruments ( Amram, 2022 Dacka & Rydz, 2023 ; Mróz et al., 2023 ).

6. Conclusions This concept analysisterm·key demonstrates the impact of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom in many aspects of daily life but especially in enhancing positive health, work and interpersonal outcomes that can significantly contribute to a more resilient healthcare system.

The revised data supports an updated conceptualization of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom, emphasizing equanimityterm·dom and life wisdomterm·dom as two newly identified core attributes. These attributes expand the conceptual scope of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom and represent a key theoretical contribution of this work. The analysis also reinforces the importance of targeting antecedents as main focus for spiritual intelligenceterm·dom enhancement interventions and consequents as outcome measures to validate for such interventions.

Clarifying spiritual intelligenceterm·dom attributes and acknowledging its antecedents and consequents, as well as understanding how it can be successfully trained, allows for concrete policy and action towards an effective recognition and practical application of spiritual care.

Further investigation is required on the potential of targeted interventions to enhance spiritual intelligenceterm·dom based on this revised definition and its attributes, in order to establish its practical helpfulness. In particular, future studies should investigate whether attributes such as equanimityterm·dom and life wisdomterm·dom function primarily as psychological traits, spiritual dispositions, or a dynamic combination of both, and how this may change the evaluation of spiritual intelligenceterm·dom moving forward. Additionally, empirical studies assessing the outcomes of targeted interventions will be essential for evaluating the practical usefulness and broader implications of this refined conceptualization, along with extensive review of the existing assessment instruments to comply with the updated attributes.