| P · prime | a prior study exposure |
| T · target | a perceptual test cue (e.g. word fragment) |
| B · baseline | baseline completion rate |
| E · priming effect | raised completion without conscious recollection |
| A · association | congruent (positive) |
phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | priming (implicit memory)— “Priming is a nonconscious form of human memory, which is concerned with perceptual identification of words and objects and which has only recently been recognized as separate from other forms of memory or memory systems.” | |
| claim-type | mechanism— “We believe that priming and perceptual identification are expressions of a single perceptual representation system (PRS), which exists separately from but interacts closely with other memory systems (10, 11).” | |
| method — evidence | — “The evidence we have reviewed converges on the PRS hypothesis-that is, priming reflects the enhancement of the neural computations and correlated cognitive operations of the perceptual representation system, PRS.” | |
| mechanism | priming reflects a distinct perceptual representation system (PRS) - a pre-semantic, implicit memory that operates without conscious recollection, separate from but interacting with episodic and semantic memory— “Priming is a type of implicit memory; it does not involve explicit or conscious recollection of any previous experiences” | mechanisms[0] |
| extends | the authors' own earlier priming article (reference 9), which conjectured an as yet little understood memory system— “In an early article on priming, we conjectured that the effects we had observed might "reflect the operation of some ... as yet little understood memory system" other than semantic or episodic memory [p. 341 in (9)].” | claim_relations[0] |
| builds-on | Warrington and Weiskrantz's experiments on learning in densely amnesic patients (reference 4)— “One of the triggers for the study of priming turned out to be experiments by Warrington and Weiskrantz (4) showing that densely amnesic patients, who were severely impaired in their ability to remember recently seen information, exhibited near-normal learning when they were tested by methods that tapped what we now know is priming.” | claim_relations[1] |
| contradicts | processing theories of priming that treat memory as a unitary cognitive system (reference 49)— “These processing theories are usually based on a limited domain of data, such as cognitive psychology experiments with normal subjects.” | claim_relations[2] |
| sense | THE PAPER THAT MADE PRIMING A MEMORY SYSTEM, AND IT SAYS HOW RECENT THAT WAS: `Priming is a nonconscious form of human memory, which is concerned with perceptual identification of words and objects and which has only recently been recognized as separate from other forms of memory or memory systems.` Not an effect, not a task - a system. Most of this corpus inherits that framing without arguing for it; this is where it was argued, and the `only recently` is the authors dating their own claim— “Priming is a nonconscious form of human memory, which is concerned with perceptual identification of words and objects and which has only recently been recognized as separate from other forms of memory or memory systems” | senses[0] |
| sense | AND THE SPLIT INSIDE THE WORD, MADE IN 1990 BY THE PEOPLE WHO OWNED IT: `priming is an expression of a perceptual representation system that operates at a pre-semantic level ... Conceptual priming, however, seems to be based on the operations of semantic memory.` Two phenomena under one term, separated by naming the systems rather than the tasks. This is the one-name-many-concepts problem being SOLVED inside a discipline - and it is worth the corpus noting that the solution was to split the referent and keep the word, which is exactly what soil science and psychology have not done with `priming effect`— “Evidence is converging for the proposition that priming is an expression of a perceptual representation system that operates at a pre-semantic level; it emerges early in development, and access to it lacks the kind of flexibility characteristic of other cognitive memory systems. Conceptual priming, however, seems to be based on the operations… | senses[1] |
| sense | AND THE ARGUMENT FOR A NEW SYSTEM IS TAXONOMIC, NOT EXPERIMENTAL: `Priming resembles PROCEDURAL memory in that it enhances perceptual skills. It also resembles SEMANTIC memory in that it involves cognitive representations of the world.` A new system is established by showing it sits between two accepted ones and belongs to neither. That is why this paper is cited by records in this corpus that share no method with it - the claim is about how to carve the field, and a carving can be adopted by anyone— “Priming resembles procedural memory in that it enhances perceptual skills. It also resembles semantic memory in that it involves cognitive representations of the world” | senses[2] |
| sense | AND THE UNAWARENESS IS OF THE MEMORY, NOT OF THE STIMULUS - WHICH IS A DIFFERENT CLAIM FROM EVERY MASKED-PRIMING RECORD HERE: `A person perceiving a familiar object is not aware that what is perceived is as much an expression of memory as it is of perception.` dehaene1998, Finkbeiner2011 and hesselmann2016 all work to make the STIMULUS unavailable to report. Tulving and Schacter are saying the stimulus is seen perfectly well and its status as a memory is what goes unnoticed. Two senses of `nonconscious priming` that the corpus has been filing under one heading— “A person perceiving a familiar object is not aware that what is perceived is as much an expression of memory as it is of perception” | senses[3] |
| control | the materials built so that the target word could not be predicted either from the picture or from the first two words of the phrase — held — rules out the priming effect being ordinary predictability - if the target can be guessed from the context, a faster response measures guessing rather than implicit memory— “247 materials had been constructed in such a manner that the target was not predictable either from the picture or from the first two words of the phrase.” | controls[0] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — held | controls[0] |
| replication | replicated— “A large number of experiments showing such independence have been reported, involving different kinds of priming tasks and tests (16).” | |
| limitation | The authors say the field's knowledge of priming is still slight because research is at an early stage.— “We still know relatively little about priming at this early stage of research.” | limitations[0] |
| limitation | The neural substrates of priming are largely unknown, and the cited neuroimaging and lesion evidence supports only indirect inferences about the brain basis of priming; direct studies are missing.— “Although this evidence bears directly on the neural bases of perceptual identification of words and objects, it can support only indirect inferences concerning the anatomical or physiological underpinnings of priming.” | limitations[1] |
| limitation | Direct studies of the brain loci of priming have not been done.— “However, studies that examine the matter directly are currently lacking and badly needed.” | limitations[2] |
| limitation | The prediction that patients with 'reading without semantics' should show robust word priming has not yet been tested directly; only indirect evidence from a single alexic patient is offered. | limitations[3] |
| limitation | The authors concede that their PRS account does not explain conceptual (semantically driven) priming effects. | limitations[4] |
| limitation | Little is known about the neural systems that mediate priming. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | priming is a nonconscious form of memory distinct from other systems Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | priming expresses a pre-semantic perceptual representation system Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| evidence status note | finding — QUOTE RECOVERED FROM THE PAPER'S OWN CHARACTERS. The recorded quote was LETTERS-ONLY IDENTICAL to this stretch of the staged text but not an exact substring of it - spaces, hyphens, ligature glyphs or mathematical operators differed, so it could never anchor. This is the file's own text between the same two letters: not produced by a rule about the damage, copied out of the file. Round-trip checked (the recovered span is letters-only equal to the original) and length-checked. The text as originally recorded is kept in evidence as extracted. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | amnesic patients show near-normal priming despite impaired recall Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | priming dissociates from explicit memory Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| quantity | 10 years — how long systematic priming study had run Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | 2 stages — study and test stages of a priming experiment Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | 2 categories of evidence — lines of support for the pre-semantic system Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| variable | magnitude of the priming effect (target vs control performance difference) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[0] |
| definition | priming Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | procedural memory Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | semantic memory Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[2] |
| definition | episodic memory Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| key-terms | priming, memory systems, implicit memory, perceptual representation system, semantic memory, episodic memory, procedural memory, nonconscious, identification, dissociations |
| concept | priming Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[0] |
| concept | perceptual representation system Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[2] |
| concept | semantic memory — not defined in this paper's own words; the OTHER thing priming can be - and the split this paper makes: perceptual priming is PRS, conceptual priming is the operations of semantic memory. One word, two systems, separated by the people who owned the word Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[7] |
| concept | procedural memory — not defined in this paper's own words; one of the two established systems priming is argued to resemble and differ from - it 'enhances perceptual skills' like procedural memory and 'involves cognitive representations of the world' like semantic memory, and belongs to neither Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[8] |
When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
Tag layer © the Meta-Tagging Project, CC BY 4.0. The paper text is © its authors/publisher
and is linked, not reproduced. Excerpts shown are short quotations for identification and verification.
· back to index
· concepts · authors
· עברית
© 2026 Shir Sivroni · ORCID 0009-0000-2597-2824