Probing perceptual decisions in rodents

Carandini, Churchland · Nature neuroscience · 2013 · neuroscience · 10.1038/nn.3410 · record Carandini2013-probing-perceptual-decisions-in-rodents
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Where this record's text came from. faceted 2026-08 by reading the locally held text (xml); every evidence string verified as an exact substring of that text before merging. Claim type is 'method' rather than 'critique': the paper does criticise go/no-go designs and single-intensity testing, but its contribution shape is a positive prescription for how to run rodent psychophysics (SDT, two-alternative forced choice, full psychometric curves). Claim relations is EMPTY on purpose - the paper's prior work is cited almost entirely by numeral (refs 1, 2, 60, 74...), and the few named citations are unpublished Society for Neuroscience abstracts mentioned as examples, so there is no sentence in which the authors explicitly relate their own position to a named prior study. The third limitation is about a belief in the field rather than about this review, but it is the authors' own hedge on a claim they themselves report, so I kept it and flag the distinction here. 2026-08-12 and 2026-08-15 schema-0.3 passes: every quote verified as an exact substring of the staged text and anchored at merge time; concept terms verified present; every edge endpoint an existing node.
11 quotations on this page contain a reference number where the paper printed a superscript. This journal style prints citations as raised numerals — parameters12,13 — and the extraction flattened them into the line, so the sentence reads parameters 12 , 13 . The digits are citation markers and not part of what the author wrote. The quotes keep them for the same reason they keep every other extraction fault: a quote is reproduced exactly or it proves nothing.
This record’s own method is review, and the tags below follow from that. A review’s findings, quantities and statistics are things stated IN this paper, and some of them report results obtained elsewhere. No tag on this page names a different author. Measured across every review in this corpus, 81% of a review’s tags carry no citation at all — most of them are the review speaking. The corpus does not adjudicate the rest: read an unmarked tag as a claim this paper makes, not necessarily one it made first.
How to read this page. The article itself is not reproduced here — this paper is not cleared for redistribution, so what follows is the tag layer alone. The evidence sentences are withheld with the article. The table at the foot lists every tag the record carries; each row names the facet it belongs to, and the whose words column says whether the tag records the paper's own wording or the tagger's sentence about the paper. Every tag links to each other paper in the corpus carrying it. The machine-readable edition of the same thing is the TEI file beside this one, where the tags live in standOff, and the article is at its publisher via the link below. When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
Other fields define these differently the same word, defined another way in another discipline
virtual reality 2 fields

Tags on this paper

Every tag the record carries, each linking to every other paper in the corpus that carries it. A tag appears here whether or not its words occur in the article — the spans below are only the ones a sentence in this paper licenses. Of the 24 concept tags on this paper, none is grounded in a quoted sentence. All carry the tagger's gloss of what the term means in this paper, which is not something the article can license.
perceptual decision-making psychophysics Signal Detection Theory Drift Diffusion Model decision variable criterion psychometric curves lapse rate go/no-go two-alternative choice two-alternative forced choice overtraining water control head-fixed virtual reality Posterior Parietal Cortex persistent activity tapetum retinotopic areas optogenetics evidence integration orbital frontal cortex anterior cingulate cortex motivation a shift in decision criterion or in willingness to act inflates the response rate, which is then misread as an improvement in the neural representation of the stimulus free water over the weekend leaves animals under-motivated at the start of the week, which drives the observed day-of-week variation in trial counts and proficiency false alarms 2-photon microscopy whiskers nocturnal go/no-go task detectability forced choice psychometric function d perceptual sensitivity sensory bias stimulus strength decision criterion trials/session training duration review

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second readingalternativesan independent re-reading of a facet, recorded whether or not it agrees
relation to other workclaim_relationshow this paper stands to another: agrees, contradicts, extends, qualifies
claim typeclaim_typethe shape of the claim: existence, mechanism, method, critique, prediction, null
concept edgeconcept_edgesan asserted relation between two concepts, with the sentence asserting it
content tagcontent_tagsa finding, definition, quantity, statistic or variable named in the paper
contributioncontributionwhat the paper claims to add
limitationlimitationswhat the paper says its evidence cannot support
mechanismmechanismshow the reported effect is said to come about
methodmethodhow the paper produced its evidence
object of studyobject_of_studywhat the paper is about — the thing it investigates
phenomenonphenomenonthe effect or regularity under study
research questionresearch_questionthe question the paper sets itself
sensesensesa distinct use of a term, quoted where the paper fixes it
transfertransfersa method or concept carried in from another field

The paper

The full text is not reproduced here. This article is not cleared for redistribution, so the page carries the tag layer only. Its evidence sentences are withheld; the grounding status remains with each tag, and the article itself is at https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3410. The reading view exists for the papers whose licence permits it.

Every tag on this page

alternatives 3 · claim_relations 7 · claim_type 1 · concept_edges 8 · content_tags 50 · contribution 1 · limitations 11 · mechanisms 14 · method 1 · object_of_study 1 · phenomenon 1 · research_question 1 · senses 7 · transfers 2

Relations on this page carry a quotation for the claim. Where a relation was separately evidenced — and so tested against the vocabulary for its type — the row says so; none of 8 relations here carry that mark. The rest are the tagger’s reading of the sentence quoted beside them.

This record holds no controls. A layer is empty when the tagger recorded nothing in it — which is not the same as the paper having nothing to record.

facettagfieldconf.whose words
object_of_studythe methods available for studying perceptual decisions in mice and rats, and whether they can reach the rigour established in primate psychophysics
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object_of_studythe paper's words
research_questioncan perceptual decision-making be probed in rodents to a standard comparable with primates, and what does each task design let one conclude
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research_questionthe paper's words
contributionsets out what each rodent task design can and cannot rule out, and corrects two widely held beliefs about rodents that turn out to be artefacts of laboratory practice
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contributionthe paper's words
claim_typemethod
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claim_typethe paper's words
phenomenonperceptual decision-making in rodents
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phenomenonthe paper's words
methodreview
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also in: review
methodthe paper's words
mechanismsmechanisms
Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.
mechanisms[0]the tagger's words
mechanismsmechanisms
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mechanisms[1]the tagger's words
mechanismsa belief about the animal is traced back to how the animal is kept: mice look nocturnal because laboratory food is unlimited
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mechanisms[2]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsthe correction is checked against morphology rather than behaviour alone - the eyes lack the tapetum a nocturnal animal would have
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mechanisms[3]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismstask designs are ordered by what each one can rule out, so the choice of design is presented as a choice of which confound survives
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mechanisms[4]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsthe criterion problem is made concrete with a hypothetical optogenetic result that would be misread under a go/no-go design
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mechanisms[5]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsd-prime is preferred over the raw hit-minus-false-alarm difference specifically because the latter moves when only the criterion moves
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mechanisms[6]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsa two-stimulus design removes the criterion entirely, because presence must be assigned to one location and absence to the other
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mechanisms[7]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsone stimulus intensity is shown to be uninterpretable: sensitivity, bias and lapse rate produce identical data at a single point
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mechanisms[8]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsthe fix is a full psychometric curve, whose slope, position and tails separate the three
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mechanisms[9]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsshort training is argued against on the grounds that error trials become uninterpretable, since a mistake may be about the stimulus or about the task
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mechanisms[10]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsa well-trained animal makes error trials interpretable, and near-perfect performance on easy trials is the check that the task itself is understood
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mechanisms[11]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsan unpublished four-fold day-of-week effect on trial count is reported, traced to the weekend water schedule
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mechanisms[12]1.0the tagger's words
mechanismsthe tacit knowledge attached to a standard task is named as knowledge that circulates informally and appears in no paper
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mechanisms[13]1.0the tagger's words
limitationsThe authors state that their own background biases the review toward one brain region and one modality.
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what this limits: the review's coverage: DUE TO OUR OWN BACKGROUNDS AND INTERESTS, WE PERHAPS UNDULY EMPHASIZE ONE BRAIN REGION, THE CEREBRAL CORTEX, AND ONE SENSORY MODALITY, VISION
limitations[0]the tagger's words
limitationsThe review is framed around unresolved questions rather than settled answers about rodent perceptual ability.
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what this limits: everything in the review: WE HIGHLIGHT WHAT ARE MAINLY OPEN QUESTIONS ABOUT RODENT PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES AND OUR ABILITY TO ASSESS THESE EXPERIMENTALLY
limitations[1]the tagger's words
limitationsThe widely held view that rats out-train mice is flagged by the authors as untested.
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what this limits: any reliance on the rats-versus-mice trainability view: AS FAR AS WE KNOW, HOWEVER, THIS VIEW HAS NOT BEEN DIRECTLY TESTED
limitations[2]the tagger's words
limitationsthe widely held view that rats out-learn mice has never been directly tested
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what this limits: the same scope as limitations[2] - the view is widely held and untested
limitations[3]1.0the tagger's words
limitationsand may be an artefact of training technique rather than a species difference
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what this limits: the species comparison: RATS MAY ONLY APPEAR TO BE EASIER TO TRAIN SIMPLY BECAUSE MICE REQUIRE DIFFERENT TRAINING TECHNIQUES
limitations[4]1.0the tagger's words
limitationsa term the field uses to justify design decisions has no agreed definition
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what this limits: every design decision justified by overtraining: THE NOTION OF OVERTRAINING, HOWEVER, IS POORLY DEFINED
limitations[5]1.0the tagger's words
limitationswhether longer training adds more uncontrolled plasticity than shorter training is not established either way
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what this limits: the argument for shorter training: IT IS NOT CLEAR THAT THIS PLASTICITY WOULD COMPLICATE INTERPRETATION of behavioral and neural data
limitations[6]1.0the tagger's words
limitationsvirtual environments lack vestibular feedback, which visual feedback may not compensate for
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what this limits: virtual-environment results: THE VISUAL FEEDBACK IN THE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT MAY NOT ENTIRELY MAKE UP FOR THE LACK OF VESTIBULAR FEEDBACK
limitations[7]1.0the tagger's words
limitationsrodents should not be treated as a replacement for primates
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what this limits: the use of rodents as a substitute: IT WOULD BE A MISTAKE TO CONSIDER RODENTS AS A COMPLETE REPLACEMENT FOR PRIMATES IN INVESTIGATIONS OF PERCEPTUAL DECISION-MAKING
limitations[8]1.0the tagger's words
limitationswhether rodent designs can reach primate psychophysical rigour is left open
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what this limits: the future of rodent psychophysics: WILL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS IN RODENTS BE ABLE TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF RIGOROUS primate methods - left open
limitations[9]0.95the tagger's words
limitationspunishment-based training learns fast but may induce stress that blocks harder tasks
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what this limits: punishment-based training: THEY MAY CREATE STRESS, WHICH MIGHT PREVENT LEARNING OF MORE COMPLEX TASKS
limitations[10]1.0the tagger's words
transfersthe whole task toolbox - random-dot motion, forced choice, psychometric curves - carried into rodents together with the standards for interpreting it
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transfers[0]1.0the tagger's words
transfersthe separation of sensitivity from criterion, imported as the reason a rodent task must measure false alarms and not only hits
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transfers[1]1.0the tagger's words
sensesthe mouse as a nocturnal, minimally visual animal versus as a facultatively diurnal one - the first turns out to be an artefact of unlimited laboratory food
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senses[0]1.0the tagger's words
sensesdetectability - as the raw difference between hits and false alarms versus as d-prime, which is criterion-independent; the two diverge whenever the criterion moves
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senses[1]1.0the tagger's words
sensesa performance change - as reduced sensitivity, as shifted bias, or as raised lapse rate; three distinct mechanisms indistinguishable at a single stimulus intensity
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senses[2]1.0the tagger's words
sensestwo-alternative choice (one stimulus, two responses) versus two-alternative forced choice (two stimuli, two responses) - names that are often conflated and designs that differ in exactly which confound they remove
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senses[3]1.0the tagger's words
sensesan error trial - as misperception of the stimulus versus as confusion about the task; only training separates them
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senses[4]1.0the tagger's words
sensesa species difference in trainability versus a difference in the training techniques that happen to have been developed
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senses[5]1.0the tagger's words
sensesrodent frontal cortex as fundamentally different from primate on histological grounds versus as functionally equivalent on behavioural grounds
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senses[6]0.95the tagger's words
alternativesclaim_type: method
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a second reading reaching the same value. Recorded: method — note: a second reading reaching the same value from a different sentence. Not applied - a person decides.
alternatives.claim_typethe tagger's words
alternativesmethod: narrative methods review of task designs, sensory environments, training regimes and reward schedules, evaluated against signal detection theory
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a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: review — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.
alternatives.methodthe tagger's words
alternativesphenomenon: perceptual decision-making - using ambiguous sensory information to guide action
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a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: perceptual decision-making in rodents — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.
alternatives.phenomenonthe tagger's words
claim_relationscritiques → the view that rodent behaviour is only weakly influenced by vision
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claim_relations[0]1.0the tagger's words
claim_relationscontradicts → the belief that mice are nocturnal, which the paper traces to unlimited laboratory food
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claim_relations[1]1.0the tagger's words
claim_relationscritiques → rodent studies that measure behaviour at a single stimulus intensity
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differs in: how many stimulus intensities were measured: OBTAINING BEHAVIORAL DATA AT ONLY A SINGLE INTENSITY (AS IS OFTEN DONE IN RODENT STUDIES) WOULD NOT ALLOW ONE TO DISTINGUISH THE EFFECTS OF SENSITIVITY, BIAS, AND LAPSE RATE - one measurement cannot separate three quantities
claim_relations[2]1.0the tagger's words
claim_relationscritiques → the untested consensus that rats learn perceptual tasks faster than mice
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status: the paper's own words: not been directly tested
claim_relations[3]1.0the tagger's words
claim_relationscritiques → the use of the difference between hit and false-alarm rates as a detectability measure
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differs in: whether the measure survives a criterion shift: THE LATTER CAN CHANGE MARKEDLY FOLLOWING SIMPLE CHANGES IN CRITERION, where the recommended measure does not
claim_relations[4]1.0the tagger's words
claim_relationsbuilds-on → primate psychophysics, whose task toolbox and standards the paper takes as the benchmark
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claim_relations[5]1.0the tagger's words
claim_relationssupports → evidence that rodent frontal cortex, like primate, supports working memory and categorization, against the histological argument for fundamental difference
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claim_relations[6]0.95the tagger's words
concept_edgesSignal Detection Theory —contrasted-with→ Drift Diffusion Model
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differs in: THE AXIS IS WHETHER THE DECISION VARIABLE EVOLVES WITH ACCUMULATING EVIDENCE. 'An increasingly popular ALTERNATIVE TO SDT, the Drift Diffusion Model Quotation withheld.' Both models produce a choice from noisy evidence; only one gives the decision a trajectory in time, which is what makes reaction times predictable and is the whole of the difference. · strength of the relation: 1
concept_edges[0]the tagger's words
concept_edgesgo/no-go —contrasted-with→ two-alternative choice
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strength of the relation: 1 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but endpoint by anaphora: 'this design' = the two-alternative choice task (previous sentences).
concept_edges[1]the tagger's words
concept_edgestwo-alternative choice —contrasted-with→ two-alternative forced choice
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strength of the relation: 0.95 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but endpoint by anaphora: the refinement is of the two-choice design (previous section); the span names 'two-alternative forced choice' only.
concept_edges[2]the tagger's words
concept_edgescriterion —distinct-from→ two-alternative forced choice
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strength of the relation: 0.95 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but the span argues two-interval designs remove presence/absence bias; distinct-from 'criterion' is loose.
concept_edges[3]the tagger's words
concept_edgespsychophysics —operationalised-as→ psychometric curves
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strength of the relation: 0.95 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but the span describes obtaining psychometric functions; operationalised-as is loose.
concept_edges[4]the tagger's words
concept_edgeswater control —causes→ motivation
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strength of the relation: 0.9 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but endpoint by anaphora: 'this regime' = the regime of water control (previous sentence).
concept_edges[5]the tagger's words
concept_edgesPosterior Parietal Cortex —causes→ evidence integration
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strength of the relation: 0.7 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the PPC is 'POISED TO' integrate multisensory inputs; causes is hedged.
concept_edges[6]the tagger's words
concept_edgeslapse rate —part-of→ psychometric curves
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strength of the relation: 0.95 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span writes 'psychometric function', not 'psychometric curves'; part-of is loose.
concept_edges[7]the tagger's words
content_tagsGo/no-go tasks are highly vulnerable to changes in the animal's motivation and response criterion.
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content_tags.findings[0]the tagger's words
content_tagsRequiring a decision on every trial makes the design immune to changes in the subject's willingness to respond.
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content_tags.findings[1]the tagger's words
content_tagsWith two stimulus presentations subjects cannot be biased toward presence or absence, since each choice assigns presence to one location and absence to the other.
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content_tags.findings[2]the tagger's words
content_tagsData from a single stimulus intensity, as often collected in rodent studies, cannot separate the effects of sensitivity, bias and lapse rate.
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content_tags.findings[3]the tagger's words
content_tagsMice are reliably nocturnal only when food is unlimited, as in the laboratory; with scarcer food they sleep part of the night to save energy.
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content_tags.findings[4]the tagger's words
content_tagsRodent eye anatomy provides independent evidence against the nocturnality assumption.
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content_tags.findings[5]the tagger's words
content_tagsPerformance can differ fourfold across the week - about 100 trials per session on Mondays against about 400 on Fridays - by the authors' unpublished observations.
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content_tags.findings[6]the tagger's words
content_tagsDespite the technical advantages of rodents, the review argues against treating them as a substitute for primate work on perceptual decisions.
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content_tags.findings[7]the tagger's words
content_tagsmice are reliably nocturnal only when food is unlimited, as it is in the laboratory
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content_tags.findings[8]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagslaboratory mice can become entirely diurnal in nature, and rodent eyes lack the tapetum expected of a nocturnal animal
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content_tags.findings[9]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsmouse spatial resolution is about 100 times lower than primate, yet vision is the primary sense rodents use to locate themselves
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content_tags.findings[10]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsmice performed about 100 trials per session on Mondays against about 400 on Fridays
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content_tags.findings[11]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagscontemporary regimes fix this with constant daily intake and seven-day training
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content_tags.findings[12]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagssome rodent tasks take 2 to 10 days to teach and others 3 to 6 weeks, and rodent training rarely exceeds 2 months
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content_tags.findings[13]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsrats combine multisensory information about as optimally as humans do
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content_tags.findings[14]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagseven within mice, body weight correlates strongly with the number of trials performed per day
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content_tags.findings[16]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsgo/no-go task
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also in: go/no-go task
content_tags.definitions[0]the tagger's words
content_tagstwo-alternative forced choice
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content_tags.definitions[2]the tagger's words
content_tagsdetectability
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also in: detectability
content_tags.definitions[3]the tagger's words
content_tagsSignal Detection Theory
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content_tags.definitions[4]the tagger's words
content_tagsDrift Diffusion Model
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content_tags.definitions[5]the tagger's words
content_tagsgo/no-go
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content_tags.definitions[7]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagstwo-alternative choice
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content_tagsforced choice
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content_tags.definitions[9]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsDrift Diffusion Model
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content_tags.definitions[10]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagspsychometric function
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content_tags.definitions[11]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsd
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content_tags.definitions[12]0.9the tagger's words
content_tagsperceptual sensitivity
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content_tags.definitions[13]the tagger's words
content_tagssensory bias
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content_tags.definitions[14]the tagger's words
content_tagslapse rate
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content_tags.definitions[15]the tagger's words
content_tags~100 times — how much lower spatial resolution is in rats and mice than in primates
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content_tags.quantities[0]the tagger's words
content_tagsat least 10 — number of retinotopic areas in the mouse visual cortex
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content_tags.quantities[1]the tagger's words
content_tags2–10 days / 3–6 weeks — range of training times needed for mice on easier versus harder perceptual tasks
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content_tags.quantities[2]the tagger's words
content_tags6–12 months — typical training time for a primate to reach proficiency on complex tasks, for contrast with rodents
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content_tags.quantities[3]the tagger's words
content_tagsa factor of 4 (~100 vs. ~400 trials/session) — Monday-versus-Friday difference in trials completed under a 5-day water-control regime
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content_tags.quantities[4]the tagger's words
content_tags25 ml/kg/day — target constant daily water intake in contemporary training regimes
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content_tags.quantities[5]the tagger's words
content_tags10 million years — how much more recently rodents and primates share a common ancestor than either does with the cat
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content_tags.quantities[6]the tagger's words
content_tags~100 times lower — rodent spatial resolution against primate
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content_tags.quantities[7]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsfactor of 4 — Monday against Friday trial counts under the weekend water regime
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content_tags.quantities[8]1.0the tagger's words
content_tags2-10 days or 3-6 weeks — rodent training durations, rarely beyond 2 months
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content_tags.quantities[9]1.0the tagger's words
content_tags6-12 months — primate training to proficiency on complex tasks
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content_tags.quantities[10]1.0the tagger's words
content_tags25 ml/kg/day — a contemporary constant water-intake target
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content_tags.quantities[11]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsSignal Detection Theory
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content_tags.statistics[0]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsfalse alarms
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content_tags.statistics[1]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsDrift Diffusion Model
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content_tags.statistics[2]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagslapse rate
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content_tags.statistics[3]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsstimulus strength
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content_tags.variables[0]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagsdecision criterion
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content_tagstrials/session
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content_tags.variables[2]1.0the tagger's words
content_tagstraining duration
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content_tags.variables[3]1.0the tagger's words

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