The COVID-19 social media infodemic

Matteo Cinelli, Walter Quattrociocchi, Alessandro Galeazzi, Carlo Michele Valensise, Emanuele Brugnoli, Ana Lucia Schmidt, Paola Zola, Fabiana Zollo, Antonio Scala · Scientific Reports · 2020 · social-psychology · 10.1038/s41598-020-73510-5 · record cinelli2020-the-covid-19-social-media-infodemi
tag layer · index · concepts · authors · עברית

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Other fields define these differently the same word, defined another way in another discipline
misinformation 4 fields · engagement 4 fields · dataset 2 fields · interest 2 fields · lack of transparency 2 fields

Tags on this paper

Every tag the record carries, each linking to every other paper in the corpus that carries it. A tag appears here whether or not its words occur in the article — the spans below are only the ones a sentence in this paper licenses. Of the 154 concept tags on this paper, all 154 are grounded in a quoted sentence. All carry the tagger's gloss of what the term means in this paper, which is not something the article can license.

questionable reliable news outlets single articles platform Gab volume reactions amplification factor fake news keywords post diffusion of information massive data analysis Twitter Instagram YouTube Reddit engagement interest epidemic models basic reproduction number R0 misinformation spreading patterns rumors’ amplification SARS-CoV-2 virus outbreak global threat disintermediated news cycle infodemic misinformation phenomena social response information is consumed and reported behavioral response of the population public health interventions communication dynamics users’ preferences and attitudes algorithms content promotion social perceptions framing of narratives policy-making polarized groups shared narratives comparative analysis five social media platforms 8 million comments and posts 45 days secondary cases “infectious” individual R0 = 1 mainstream platforms less regulated social media platforms crowdfunded social media social news aggregation collective filtering of information Google Trends’ COVID-19 related queries 1,342,103 posts 7,465,721 comments 3,734,815 users interactions users’ activity long tail dynamics of reactions and content consumption Natural Language Processing techniques word embedding word vector representation clustering procedures cumulative number of new posts each day first situation report specific timings for content consumption interaction mechanisms standard epidemic models monotonic increasing trend growth mechanisms phenomenological models infective process EXP model SIR (Susceptible, Infected, Recovered) compartmental model supercritical engagement rate social contagion phenomena abrupt jump continuous models Media Bias/Fact Check extreme bias propaganda/conspiracies poor or no sourcing lack of transparency overall reactions strong linear correlation growth dynamics re-scaled version re-scaling factor ρ mainstream social media coefficient of relative amplification permeability of a platform Twitter is the most neutral YouTube amplifies questionable sources less Reddit reduces the impact of questionable sources Gab strongly amplifies them interaction paradigm interaction patterns of groups of users tailored communication strategies Reddit dataset YouTube Data API Twitter API stream API search API Instagram Dataset URLs MediaBias/FactCheck (MBFC) Factual/Sourcing Conspiracy-Pseudoscience Pro-Science binary label matching ability Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm Skip-gram model distributed representations of words Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) linear regularities among words English HTML code, URLs and email addresses stop-words cosine distance matrix average silhouette width average pairwise Jaccard similarity word clouds mechanistic models adjusted exponential model data-scarce settings classical SIR model susceptible population infected individuals rate β γ linear regression coefficients R2 values average number of secondary cases Word embeddings EXP E U /E R interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media information spreading perils of misinformation phenomena dataset R0 > 1 R0 audience and interaction mechanisms cluster words linear relationship between reliable and questionable sources the same curve, a different multiplier volume and reaction come apart the label is on the outlet, and the authors say so the keyword set is the aperture an epidemiological model borrowed for language questionable sources observational-study

Method, as described: keyword-driven collection from five platform APIs over 45 days, 8 million posts and comments, links tagged reliable or questionable from Media Bias/Fact Check, and an epidemic model fitted to obtain a basic reproduction number per platform

Legend

relation to other work	`claim_relations`	how this paper stands to another: agrees, contradicts, extends, qualifies
claim type	`claim_type`	the shape of the claim: existence, mechanism, method, critique, prediction, null
concept edge	`concept_edges`	an asserted relation between two concepts, with the sentence asserting it
concept	`concepts`	an idea the paper works with, quoted where the paper uses it
content tag	`content_tags`	a finding, definition, quantity, statistic or variable named in the paper
contribution	`contribution`	what the paper claims to add
control	`controls`	an experiment run to eliminate a rival explanation
limitation	`limitations`	what the paper says its evidence cannot support
mechanism	`mechanisms`	how the reported effect is said to come about
method	`method`	how the paper produced its evidence
object of study	`object_of_study`	what the paper is about — the thing it investigates
phenomenon	`phenomenon`	the effect or regularity under study
research question	`research_question`	the question the paper sets itself
sense	`senses`	a distinct use of a term, quoted where the paper fixes it
transfer	`transfers`	a method or concept carried in from another field
unrecordable relation	`unhoused_relations`	a relation the paper asserts that this vocabulary cannot express, with the reason

The paper

The full text is not reproduced here. This article is not cleared for redistribution, so the page carries the tag layer only. Its evidence sentences are withheld; the grounding status remains with each tag, and the article itself is at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73510-5. The reading view exists for the papers whose licence permits it.

Every tag on this page

claim_relations 4 · claim_type 1 · concept_edges 12 · concepts 154 · content_tags 12 · contribution 1 · controls 5 · limitations 5 · mechanisms 5 · method 1 · object_of_study 1 · phenomenon 1 · research_question 1 · senses 16 · transfers 2 · unhoused_relations 10

Relations on this page carry a quotation for the claim. Where a relation was separately evidenced — and so tested against the vocabulary for its type — the row says so; 12 of 12 relations here carry that mark. The rest are the tagger’s reading of the sentence quoted beside them.

facet	tag	field	conf.	whose words
object_of_study	how COVID-19 information spread on Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Reddit and Gab over the same 45 days, and whether content from questionable outlets travels differently from content from reliable ones Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`object_of_study`		the paper's words
research_question	whether the diffusion of misinformation is a property of the content or of the platform it is on Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`research_question`		the paper's words
contribution	a five-platform comparison over one keyword set, with an epidemic model fitted per platform, showing that reliable and questionable content share a growth pattern whose ratio depends entirely on the platform Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`contribution`		the paper's words
claim_type	existence Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_type`		the paper's words
phenomenon	an infodemic - and a quantity whose value is a property of the environment measured rather than of the thing measured Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`phenomenon`		the paper's words
method	observational-study Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: observational-study	`method`		the paper's words
mechanisms	posts and reactions from questionable outlets grow at the same pace as those from reliable ones inside a platform, so the questionable series is a re-scaling of the reliable one. THE ONLY THING THAT VARIES IS THE SCALING FACTOR, AND IT VARIES BY PLATFORM - which means a single-platform study measures its platform, not the phenomenon Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: the same curve, a different multiplier	`mechanisms[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
mechanisms	Gab posts about 70% as much questionable as reliable content and reacts to it about three times more. Counting posts and counting reactions therefore rank the platforms differently, and the amplification factor exists precisely to separate them Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: volume and reaction come apart	`mechanisms[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
mechanisms	reliability comes from Media Bias/Fact Check at the level of the news outlet. Every article from a listed outlet inherits its label, and every article from an unlisted one is invisible. The paper states the limit and prints the six criteria rather than citing the list, which is what makes the boundary checkable Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: the label is on the outlet, and the authors say so	`mechanisms[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
mechanisms	every platform's data was gathered by the same Google-Trends-derived keyword list, and on Gab the hashtags were then manually browsed and selected by meaning. What is in the dataset is what those keywords caught, and the comparability across five platforms rests on the list being applied identically Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: the keyword set is the aperture	`mechanisms[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
mechanisms	R0 is the number of secondary cases an infectious individual creates. Here the infection is posting about COVID-19, so R0 > 1 means the topic keeps spreading. The metaphor imports a threshold at 1 that the social process did not have Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: an epidemiological model borrowed for language	`mechanisms[4]`	0.95	the tagger's words
limitations	reliability is labelled at the level of the news outlet rather than the single article, and the authors name this as the limit of the approach Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`limitations[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
limitations	the definition of `fake news` may be `inadequate, since political debate often resorts to labelling opposite news as unreliable or fake` Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`limitations[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
limitations	Twitter data before 27 January could not be gathered because of API limitations, so that platform's series starts later than the others Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`limitations[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
limitations	Gab has no official API guide, so hashtags were manually browsed and selected by meaning rather than by a documented procedure Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`limitations[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
limitations	the whole dataset is bounded by a keyword list derived from Google Trends Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`limitations[4]`	0.95	the tagger's words
transfers	the basic reproduction number from epidemiology, applied to users who begin posting about a topic rather than to infected individuals Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
transfers	a third-party fact-checking organisation's outlet ratings, used as the ground truth for content reliability Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
controls	five platforms analysed over the same time window with the same keyword set, rather than one Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. eliminates: a platform-specific effect being reported as a property of misinformation - which the paper names as the flaw in single-platform studies · outcome: held	`controls[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
controls	the growth of reliable-source content plotted against questionable-source content within each platform, rather than questionable content alone Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. eliminates: a rise in misinformation that is really a rise in posting - the two grow at the same pace, so the ratio is the only thing that carries information · outcome: held	`controls[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
controls	the amplification factor defined and measured separately from post volume Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. eliminates: posting and reacting being conflated - on Gab they point in opposite directions · outcome: held	`controls[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
controls	the six criteria for a questionable source printed in the paper rather than cited to the fact-checking organisation Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. eliminates: a category readers cannot inspect - the boundary is stated even though the labels come from a third party · outcome: held	`controls[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
controls	keyword-driven collection applied identically across platforms, with the Gab hashtags manually browsed because no documented API guide exists Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. eliminates: a cross-platform difference that is really a difference in how each platform was searched · outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation): held	`controls[4]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concepts	questionable Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: questionable	`concepts[0]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	reliable Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: reliable	`concepts[1]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	news outlets Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: news outlets	`concepts[2]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	single articles Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: single articles	`concepts[3]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	platform Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: platform	`concepts[4]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Gab Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Gab	`concepts[5]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	volume Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: volume	`concepts[6]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	reactions Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: reactions	`concepts[7]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	amplification factor Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: amplification factor	`concepts[8]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	fake news Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: fake news	`concepts[9]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	keywords Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: keywords	`concepts[10]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	post Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: post	`concepts[11]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	diffusion of information Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: diffusion of information	`concepts[12]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	massive data analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: massive data analysis	`concepts[13]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Twitter Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Twitter	`concepts[14]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Instagram Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Instagram	`concepts[15]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	YouTube Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: YouTube	`concepts[16]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Reddit Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Reddit	`concepts[17]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	engagement Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: engagement	`concepts[18]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	interest Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: interest	`concepts[19]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	epidemic models Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: epidemic models	`concepts[20]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	basic reproduction number R0 Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: basic reproduction number R0	`concepts[21]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	misinformation Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: misinformation	`concepts[22]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	spreading patterns Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: spreading patterns	`concepts[23]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	rumors’ amplification Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: rumors’ amplification	`concepts[24]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	SARS-CoV-2 virus outbreak Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: SARS-CoV-2 virus outbreak	`concepts[25]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	global threat Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: global threat	`concepts[26]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	disintermediated news cycle Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: disintermediated news cycle	`concepts[27]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	infodemic Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: infodemic	`concepts[28]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	misinformation phenomena Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: misinformation phenomena	`concepts[29]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	social response Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: social response	`concepts[30]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	information is consumed and reported Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: information is consumed and reported	`concepts[31]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	behavioral response of the population Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: behavioral response of the population	`concepts[32]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	public health interventions Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: public health interventions	`concepts[33]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	communication dynamics Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: communication dynamics	`concepts[34]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	users’ preferences and attitudes Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: users’ preferences and attitudes	`concepts[35]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	algorithms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: algorithms	`concepts[36]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	content promotion Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: content promotion	`concepts[37]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	social perceptions Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: social perceptions	`concepts[38]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	framing of narratives Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: framing of narratives	`concepts[39]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	policy-making Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: policy-making	`concepts[40]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	polarized groups Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: polarized groups	`concepts[41]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	shared narratives Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: shared narratives	`concepts[42]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	comparative analysis Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: comparative analysis	`concepts[43]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	five social media platforms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: five social media platforms	`concepts[44]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	8 million comments and posts Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: 8 million comments and posts	`concepts[45]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	45 days Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: 45 days	`concepts[46]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	secondary cases Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: secondary cases	`concepts[47]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	“infectious” individual Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: “infectious” individual	`concepts[48]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	R0 = 1 Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: R0 = 1	`concepts[49]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	mainstream platforms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: mainstream platforms	`concepts[50]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	less regulated social media platforms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: less regulated social media platforms	`concepts[51]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	crowdfunded social media Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: crowdfunded social media	`concepts[52]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	social news aggregation Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: social news aggregation	`concepts[53]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	collective filtering of information Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: collective filtering of information	`concepts[54]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Google Trends’ COVID-19 related queries Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Google Trends’ COVID-19 related queries	`concepts[55]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	1,342,103 posts Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: 1,342,103 posts	`concepts[56]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	7,465,721 comments Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: 7,465,721 comments	`concepts[57]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	3,734,815 users Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: 3,734,815 users	`concepts[58]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	interactions Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: interactions	`concepts[59]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	users’ activity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: users’ activity	`concepts[60]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	long tail Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: long tail	`concepts[61]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	dynamics of reactions and content consumption Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: dynamics of reactions and content consumption	`concepts[62]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Natural Language Processing techniques Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Natural Language Processing techniques	`concepts[63]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	word embedding Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: word embedding	`concepts[64]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	word vector representation Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: word vector representation	`concepts[65]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	clustering procedures Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: clustering procedures	`concepts[66]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	cumulative number of new posts each day Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: cumulative number of new posts each day	`concepts[67]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	first situation report Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: first situation report	`concepts[68]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	specific timings for content consumption Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: specific timings for content consumption	`concepts[69]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	interaction mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: interaction mechanisms	`concepts[70]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	standard epidemic models Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: standard epidemic models	`concepts[71]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	monotonic increasing trend Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: monotonic increasing trend	`concepts[72]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	growth mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: growth mechanisms	`concepts[73]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	phenomenological models Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: phenomenological models	`concepts[74]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	basic reproduction number R0 Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: basic reproduction number R0	`concepts[75]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	infective process Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: infective process	`concepts[76]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	EXP model Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: EXP model	`concepts[77]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	SIR (Susceptible, Infected, Recovered) compartmental model Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: SIR (Susceptible, Infected, Recovered) compartmental model	`concepts[78]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	supercritical Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: supercritical	`concepts[79]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	engagement rate Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: engagement rate	`concepts[80]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	social contagion phenomena Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: social contagion phenomena	`concepts[81]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	abrupt jump Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: abrupt jump	`concepts[82]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	continuous models Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: continuous models	`concepts[83]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Media Bias/Fact Check Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Media Bias/Fact Check	`concepts[84]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	extreme bias Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: extreme bias	`concepts[85]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	propaganda/conspiracies Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: propaganda/conspiracies	`concepts[86]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	poor or no sourcing Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: poor or no sourcing	`concepts[87]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	lack of transparency Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: lack of transparency	`concepts[88]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	overall reactions Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: overall reactions	`concepts[89]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	strong linear correlation Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: strong linear correlation	`concepts[90]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	growth dynamics Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: growth dynamics	`concepts[91]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	re-scaled version Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: re-scaled version	`concepts[92]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	re-scaling factor ρ Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: re-scaling factor ρ	`concepts[93]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	mainstream social media Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: mainstream social media	`concepts[94]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	coefficient of relative amplification Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: coefficient of relative amplification	`concepts[95]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	permeability of a platform Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: permeability of a platform	`concepts[96]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Twitter is the most neutral Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Twitter is the most neutral	`concepts[97]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	YouTube amplifies questionable sources less Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: YouTube amplifies questionable sources less	`concepts[98]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Reddit reduces the impact of questionable sources Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Reddit reduces the impact of questionable sources	`concepts[99]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Gab strongly amplifies them Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Gab strongly amplifies them	`concepts[100]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	interaction paradigm Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: interaction paradigm	`concepts[101]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	interaction patterns of groups of users Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: interaction patterns of groups of users	`concepts[102]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	tailored communication strategies Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: tailored communication strategies	`concepts[103]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Reddit dataset Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Reddit dataset	`concepts[104]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	YouTube Data API Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: YouTube Data API	`concepts[105]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Twitter API Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Twitter API	`concepts[106]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	stream API Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: stream API	`concepts[107]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	search API Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: search API	`concepts[108]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Instagram Dataset Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Instagram Dataset	`concepts[109]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	URLs Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: URLs	`concepts[110]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	MediaBias/FactCheck (MBFC) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: MediaBias/FactCheck (MBFC)	`concepts[111]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Factual/Sourcing Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Factual/Sourcing	`concepts[112]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Conspiracy-Pseudoscience Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Conspiracy-Pseudoscience	`concepts[113]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Pro-Science Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Pro-Science	`concepts[114]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	binary label Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: binary label	`concepts[115]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	matching ability Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: matching ability	`concepts[116]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm	`concepts[117]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Skip-gram model Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Skip-gram model	`concepts[118]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	distributed representations of words Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: distributed representations of words	`concepts[119]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA)	`concepts[120]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA)	`concepts[121]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	linear regularities among words Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: linear regularities among words	`concepts[122]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	English Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: English	`concepts[123]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	HTML code, URLs and email addresses Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: HTML code, URLs and email addresses	`concepts[124]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	stop-words Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: stop-words	`concepts[125]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	cosine distance matrix Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: cosine distance matrix	`concepts[126]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	average silhouette width Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: average silhouette width	`concepts[127]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	average pairwise Jaccard similarity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: average pairwise Jaccard similarity	`concepts[128]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	word clouds Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: word clouds	`concepts[129]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	mechanistic models Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: mechanistic models	`concepts[130]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	adjusted exponential model Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: adjusted exponential model	`concepts[131]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	data-scarce settings Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: data-scarce settings	`concepts[132]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	classical SIR model Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: classical SIR model	`concepts[133]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	susceptible population Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: susceptible population	`concepts[134]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	infected individuals Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: infected individuals	`concepts[135]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	rate β Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: rate β	`concepts[136]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	γ Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: γ	`concepts[137]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	linear regression coefficients Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: linear regression coefficients	`concepts[138]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	R2 values Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: R2 values	`concepts[139]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	average number of secondary cases Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: average number of secondary cases	`concepts[140]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Word embeddings Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Word embeddings	`concepts[141]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	EXP Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: EXP	`concepts[142]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	E U /E R Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: E U /E R	`concepts[143]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media	`concepts[144]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	information spreading Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: information spreading	`concepts[145]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	perils of misinformation phenomena Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: perils of misinformation phenomena	`concepts[146]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	dataset Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: dataset	`concepts[147]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	R0 > 1 Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: R0 > 1	`concepts[148]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	R0 Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: R0	`concepts[149]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	audience and interaction mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: audience and interaction mechanisms	`concepts[150]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	Questionable Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Questionable	`concepts[151]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	cluster words Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: cluster words	`concepts[152]`	0.95	the paper's words
concepts	linear relationship between reliable and questionable sources Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: linear relationship between reliable and questionable sources	`concepts[153]`	0.95	the paper's words
unhoused_relations	adjusted exponential model → EXP Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. The paper indicates the adjusted exponential model as EXP; the gate's same-as cues do not include this wording, so the alias remains unhoused.	`unhoused_relations[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	algorithms → content promotion Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. Algorithms mediate content promotion; mediates is absent from the eight governed types.	`unhoused_relations[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	Google Trends’ COVID-19 related queries → dataset Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. The query set filters which platform content enters the dataset; selects-or-filters-into is absent from the governed types.	`unhoused_relations[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	R0 > 1 → infodemic Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. R0 above one indicates the possibility of an infodemic; indicator-of is absent from the eight governed types.	`unhoused_relations[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	R0 → engagement rate Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. R0 is used as a proxy for engagement rate; proxy-for is absent from the eight governed types.	`unhoused_relations[4]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	specific timings for content consumption → audience and interaction mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. Platform timing patterns may depend on audience and social/algorithmic interaction mechanisms; depends-on is absent and the statement is hedged.	`unhoused_relations[5]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	growth dynamics → re-scaling factor ρ Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. Questionable-source growth is a rescaled version of reliable-source growth, with rho providing the platform-dependent scale; scaled-by is absent.	`unhoused_relations[6]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	Conspiracy-Pseudoscience → Questionable Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. MBFC outlets in Conspiracy-Pseudoscience are assigned the binary Questionable label; labelled-as by a classifier is absent from the governed types.	`unhoused_relations[7]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm → cluster words Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. PAM is used to cluster words from their embedding vectors; used-for is absent from the governed types.	`unhoused_relations[8]`	0.95	the tagger's words
unhoused_relations	R2 values → linear relationship between reliable and questionable sources Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. High R-squared values confirm the linear source-class diffusion relationship; supports-or-confirms is absent from the eight types.	`unhoused_relations[9]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	a questionable source - AS DEFINED HERE: a news OUTLET systematically showing extreme bias, promotion of propaganda or conspiracies, poor sourcing, unverifiable information, a lack of transparency, or fake news Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	a questionable source - WHAT THE LABEL CANNOT SEE: the individual article. The authors name labelling outlets rather than single articles as the limit of the approach, in the sentence that adopts it Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	`fake news` - AS A TERM: possibly `inadequate, since political debate often resorts to labelling opposite news as unreliable or fake` Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	the spread of misinformation - AS A PATTERN: the same growth dynamics as reliable content, re-scaled Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	the spread of misinformation - AS A VOLUME: a ratio strongly dependent on the platform, with Gab's reactions running three times the reliable volume Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[4]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	R0 - AS AN EPIDEMIC PARAMETER: the average number of secondary cases one infectious individual creates, with 1 as the threshold Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[5]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Infodemic - misinformation during outbreak management can fragment social response and interfere with disease countermeasures Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[6]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Cross-platform unit of comparison - the same COVID-19 argument is observed in environments with different audiences and interaction settings Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[7]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Engagement distribution - all five platforms show long-tailed user activity even though their interaction volumes differ Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[8]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Epidemic analogy - exposure precedes first posting, an already-posting user is infectious, and R0 above one denotes possible infodemic growth Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[9]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Model limitation - Instagram's abrupt growth jump drives an implausibly large SIR R0 and cannot be represented by a continuous epidemic model Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[10]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Source-class growth - questionable and reliable content share a linear growth pace within a platform but differ by a platform-specific rescaling factor Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[11]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Volume versus amplification - Gab has lower questionable posting volume than reliable volume while questionable reactions are several times larger Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[12]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Relative amplification - alpha above one favors questionable sources, below one favors reliable sources, and near one is neutral Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[13]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Outlet-label aperture - only posts with external URLs matching the MBFC list can receive the study's Questionable or Reliable classification Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[14]`	0.95	the tagger's words
senses	Phenomenological versus mechanistic modeling - one reproduces empirical curves without a growth mechanism while the other tries to encode the mechanism Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[15]`	0.95	the tagger's words
claim_relations	critiques → single-platform studies of misinformation diffusion, on the grounds that the dynamics may be particular to the environment Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
claim_relations	qualifies → the finding that fake news spreads faster and wider than fact-based news, by noting it might be a platform-specific effect Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
claim_relations	qualifies → its own reliability labels, by naming outlet-level rather than article-level tagging as the limit and printing the criteria Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
claim_relations	extends → epidemiological modelling, by fitting a basic reproduction number to the spread of a topic rather than of a disease Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	news outlets —distinct-from→ single articles Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. differs in: what unit the reliability judgement is attached to · the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 0.95 · differs in (stated by the tagger, no quotation): what unit the reliability judgement is attached to · the relation stated: reliability is tagged at the outlet level from a third-party fact-checker; other studies label individual articles, and the authors name the difference as the limit of their approach also in: news outlets · single articles	`concept_edges[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	volume —distinct-from→ reactions Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. differs in: whether the platform's difference is in what is posted or in what is reacted to · the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 0.95 · differs in (stated by the tagger, no quotation): whether the platform's difference is in what is posted or in what is reacted to · the relation stated: on Gab the volume of questionable posts is about 70% of reliable ones while their reactions are about three times bigger - the volume and the response come apart, and only on that platform Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but the span compares post volume with reactions; distinct-from is loose. also in: volume · reactions	`concept_edges[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	amplification factor —operationalised-as→ post Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 0.95 · the relation stated: amplification is defined as the average number of reactions a post receives, which separates how much is published from how much is responded to Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but E is the average number of reactions to a post; the endpoint 'post' drops 'reactions'. also in: amplification factor · post	`concept_edges[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	Gab —is-a→ crowdfunded social media Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 1 · note: The paper directly classifies Gab as a crowdfunded social medium. also in: Gab · crowdfunded social media	`concept_edges[4]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	Reddit —is-a→ social news aggregation Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 1 · note: The paper directly classifies Reddit as social news aggregation. also in: Reddit · social news aggregation	`concept_edges[5]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	R0 —operationalised-as→ average number of secondary cases Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 1 · note: The i.e. clause supplies the study's platform-level operational definition. also in: R0 · average number of secondary cases	`concept_edges[6]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	interactions —operationalised-as→ engagement Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 1 · note: The study equates its interaction measure with engagement using i.e. also in: interactions · engagement	`concept_edges[7]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	word embedding —operationalised-as→ word vector representation Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 1 · note: The paper defines the embedding representation with an i.e. clause. also in: word embedding · word vector representation	`concept_edges[8]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	phenomenological models —contrasted-with→ mechanistic models Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. differs in: reproducing empirical data without versus incorporating growth mechanisms · the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 1 · differs in (stated by the tagger, no quotation): reproducing empirical data without versus incorporating growth mechanisms · note: The methods section explicitly distinguishes the two model families. also in: phenomenological models · mechanistic models	`concept_edges[9]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	Word embeddings —operationalised-as→ distributed representations of words Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 1 · note: An i.e. clause defines word embeddings as distributed representations. also in: Word embeddings · distributed representations of words	`concept_edges[10]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	coefficient of relative amplification —operationalised-as→ E U /E R Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 1 · note: The coefficient is explicitly defined as the unreliable-to-reliable amplification ratio. also in: coefficient of relative amplification · E U /E R	`concept_edges[11]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concept_edges	interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media —causes→ information spreading Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. the relation itself is separately evidenced · strength of the relation: 0.7 · note: The analysis suggests that platform interaction paradigms drive spreading; weight reflects 'suggests'. · the relation stated: information spreading is driven by the interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media or/and by the specific interaction patterns of groups of users engaged with the topic Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but 'Our analysis suggests' spreading is driven by the interaction paradigm; hedged. also in: interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media · information spreading	`concept_edges[12]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	the growth of questionable-source content is a re-scaled version of reliable-source content, and the re-scaling factor depends strongly on the platform Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	information from reliable and questionable sources does not present different spreading patterns Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	on Gab, questionable posts are about 70% of the reliable volume while their reactions are about three times bigger Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	reliability is labelled at the level of the news outlet rather than the single article, which the authors name as the limit of the approach Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	the definition of fake news may be inadequate because political debate resorts to labelling opposite news as unreliable Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[4]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	information spreading appears driven by the interaction paradigm imposed by the specific platform or by the interaction patterns of the users engaged Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[5]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	a news outlet systematically showing one or more of: extreme bias, consistent promotion of propaganda or conspiracies, poor or no sourcing, information not supported by evidence or unverifiable, a complete lack of transparency, or fake news Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: questionable sources	`content_tags.definitions[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	the average number of reactions to a post - a measure of the extent to which a post is amplified in a social media Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: amplification factor	`content_tags.definitions[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	days of data across five platforms, more than 8 million comments and posts Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	R0 Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: R0	`content_tags.statistics[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	platform Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: platform	`content_tags.variables[0]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	amplification factor Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: amplification factor	`content_tags.variables[1]`	0.95	the tagger's words

Interpretive choices

Tags that could not be placed in the text:

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What was deliberately not tagged, and why, is recorded per paper by the tagger. Where a paper has no such record, this page says so rather than implying that nothing was declined.