phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | an infodemic - and a quantity whose value is a property of the environment measured rather than of the thing measured— “Surprisingly, all the posts show a strong linear correlation, i.e., the number of posts/reactions relying on questionable and reliable sources grows with the same pace inside the same social media platform. We observe the same phenomenon also for the engagement with reliable and questionable sources. Hence, the growth dynamics of… | |
| claim-type | existence— “We address the diffusion of information about the COVID‑19 with a massive data analysis on Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Reddit and Gab. We analyze engagement and interest in the COVID‑19 topic and provide a differential assessment on the evolution of the discourse on a global scale for each platform and their users. We fit information… | |
| method — evidence | — “In all cases we guided the data collection by a set of selected keywords based on Google Trends’ COVID-19 related queries such as: coronavirus, pandemic, coronaoutbreak, china, wuhan, nCoV, IamNotAVirus, coronavirus_update, coronavirus_transmission, coronavirusnews, coronavirusoutbreak.” | |
| object of study — evidence | — “We address the diffusion of information about the COVID‑19 with a massive data analysis on Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Reddit and Gab. We analyze engagement and interest in the COVID‑19 topic and provide a differential assessment on the evolution of the discourse on a global scale for each platform and their users. We fit information… | |
| research question — evidence | — “While most of the studies on misinformation diffusion focus on a single platform17,26,33, the dynamics behind information consumption might be particular to the environment in which they spread on. Consequently, in this paper we perform a comparative analysis on five social media platforms (Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Reddit and Gab) during… | |
| contribution — evidence | — “Surprisingly, all the posts show a strong linear correlation, i.e., the number of posts/reactions relying on questionable and reliable sources grows with the same pace inside the same social media platform. We observe the same phenomenon also for the engagement with reliable and questionable sources. Hence, the growth dynamics of… | |
| transfer | from epidemiology: the basic reproduction number from epidemiology, applied to users who begin posting about a topic rather than to infected individuals— “Furthermore, we model the spread of information with epidemic models, characterizing for each platform its basic reproduction number ( R0 ), i.e. the average number of secondary cases (users that start posting about COVID-19) an “infectious” individual (an individual already posting on COVID-19) will create. In epidemiology, R0 = 1 is a… | transfers[0] |
| transfer | from journalism fact-checking: a third-party fact-checking organisation's outlet ratings, used as the ground truth for content reliability— “We tag links as reliable or questionable according to the data reported by the independent fact-checking organization Media Bias/Fact Check34. In order to clarify the limits of an approach that is based on labelling news outlets rather than single articles, as for instance performed in33,48, we report the definitions used in this paper for… | transfers[1] |
| mechanism | the same curve, a different multiplier posts and reactions from questionable outlets grow at the same pace as those from reliable ones inside a platform, so the questionable series is a re-scaling of the reliable one. THE ONLY THING THAT VARIES IS THE SCALING FACTOR, AND IT VARIES BY PLATFORM - which means a single-platform study measures its platform, not the phenomenon— “Surprisingly, all the posts show a strong linear correlation, i.e., the number of posts/reactions relying on questionable and reliable sources grows with the same pace inside the same social media platform. We observe the same phenomenon also for the engagement with reliable and questionable sources. Hence, the growth dynamics of… | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | volume and reaction come apart Gab posts about 70% as much questionable as reliable content and reacts to it about three times more. Counting posts and counting reactions therefore rank the platforms differently, and the amplification factor exists precisely to separate them— “Among less regulated social media, a peculiar effect is observed in Gab: while the volume of posts from questionable sources is just the ∼ 70% of the volume of posts from reliable ones, the volume of reactions for the former ones is ∼ 3 times bigger than the volume for the latter ones.” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | the label is on the outlet, and the authors say so reliability comes from Media Bias/Fact Check at the level of the news outlet. Every article from a listed outlet inherits its label, and every article from an unlisted one is invisible. The paper states the limit and prints the six criteria rather than citing the list, which is what makes the boundary checkable— “We tag links as reliable or questionable according to the data reported by the independent fact-checking organization Media… | mechanisms[2] |
| mechanism | the keyword set is the aperture every platform's data was gathered by the same Google-Trends-derived keyword list, and on Gab the hashtags were then manually browsed and selected by meaning. What is in the dataset is what those keywords caught, and the comparability across five platforms rests on the list being applied identically Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | mechanisms[3] |
| mechanism | an epidemiological model borrowed for language R0 is the number of secondary cases an infectious individual creates. Here the infection is posting about COVID-19, so R0 > 1 means the topic keeps spreading. The metaphor imports a threshold at 1 that the social process did not have Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | mechanisms[4] |
| critiques | single-platform studies of misinformation diffusion, on the grounds that the dynamics may be particular to the environment Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[0] |
| qualifies | the finding that fake news spreads faster and wider than fact-based news, by noting it might be a platform-specific effect Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[1] |
| qualifies | its own reliability labels, by naming outlet-level rather than article-level tagging as the limit and printing the criteria Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[2] |
| extends | epidemiological modelling, by fitting a basic reproduction number to the spread of a topic rather than of a disease Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[3] |
| sense | a questionable source - AS DEFINED HERE: a news OUTLET systematically showing extreme bias, promotion of propaganda or conspiracies, poor sourcing, unverifiable information, a lack of transparency, or fake news Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[0] |
| sense | a questionable source - WHAT THE LABEL CANNOT SEE: the individual article. The authors name labelling outlets rather than single articles as the limit of the approach, in the sentence that adopts it Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[1] |
| sense | `fake news` - AS A TERM: possibly `inadequate, since political debate often resorts to labelling opposite news as unreliable or fake` Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[2] |
| sense | the spread of misinformation - AS A PATTERN: the same growth dynamics as reliable content, re-scaled Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[3] |
| sense | the spread of misinformation - AS A VOLUME: a ratio strongly dependent on the platform, with Gab's reactions running three times the reliable volume Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[4] |
| sense | R0 - AS AN EPIDEMIC PARAMETER: the average number of secondary cases one infectious individual creates, with 1 as the threshold Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[5] |
| sense | Infodemic - misinformation during outbreak management can fragment social response and interfere with disease countermeasures Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[6] |
| sense | Cross-platform unit of comparison - the same COVID-19 argument is observed in environments with different audiences and interaction settings Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[7] |
| sense | Engagement distribution - all five platforms show long-tailed user activity even though their interaction volumes differ Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[8] |
| sense | Epidemic analogy - exposure precedes first posting, an already-posting user is infectious, and R0 above one denotes possible infodemic growth Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[9] |
| sense | Model limitation - Instagram's abrupt growth jump drives an implausibly large SIR R0 and cannot be represented by a continuous epidemic model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[10] |
| sense | Source-class growth - questionable and reliable content share a linear growth pace within a platform but differ by a platform-specific rescaling factor Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[11] |
| sense | Volume versus amplification - Gab has lower questionable posting volume than reliable volume while questionable reactions are several times larger Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[12] |
| sense | Relative amplification - alpha above one favors questionable sources, below one favors reliable sources, and near one is neutral Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[13] |
| sense | Outlet-label aperture - only posts with external URLs matching the MBFC list can receive the study's Questionable or Reliable classification Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[14] |
| sense | Phenomenological versus mechanistic modeling - one reproduces empirical curves without a growth mechanism while the other tries to encode the mechanism Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[15] |
| control | five platforms analysed over the same time window with the same keyword set, rather than one — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. — rules out a platform-specific effect being reported as a property of misinformation - which the paper names as the flaw in single-platform studies Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[0] |
| control | the growth of reliable-source content plotted against questionable-source content within each platform, rather than questionable content alone — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. — rules out a rise in misinformation that is really a rise in posting - the two grow at the same pace, so the ratio is the only thing that carries information Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[1] |
| control | the amplification factor defined and measured separately from post volume — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. — rules out posting and reacting being conflated - on Gab they point in opposite directions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[2] |
| control | the six criteria for a questionable source printed in the paper rather than cited to the fact-checking organisation — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. — rules out a category readers cannot inspect - the boundary is stated even though the labels come from a third party Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[3] |
| control | keyword-driven collection applied identically across platforms, with the Gab hashtags manually browsed because no documented API guide exists — held — rules out a cross-platform difference that is really a difference in how each platform was searched Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[4] |
| weight | single-platform studies of misinformation diffusion, on the grounds that the dynamics may be particular to the environment — 0.95 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[0] |
| weight | the finding that fake news spreads faster and wider than fact-based news, by noting it might be a platform-specific effect — 0.95 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[1] |
| weight | its own reliability labels, by naming outlet-level rather than article-level tagging as the limit and printing the criteria — 0.95 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[2] |
| weight | epidemiological modelling, by fitting a basic reproduction number to the spread of a topic rather than of a disease — 0.9 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[3] |
| differs in (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | news outlets —distinct-from→ single articles — what unit the reliability judgement is attached to | concept_edges[1] |
| relation | news outlets —distinct-from→ single articles — reliability is tagged at the outlet level from a third-party fact-checker; other studies label individual articles, and the authors name the difference as the limit of their approach Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[1] |
| weight | news outlets —distinct-from→ single articles — 0.95 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[1] |
| audit | volume —distinct-from→ reactions — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but the span compares post volume with reactions; distinct-from is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[2] |
| differs in (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | volume —distinct-from→ reactions — whether the platform's difference is in what is posted or in what is reacted to | concept_edges[2] |
| relation | volume —distinct-from→ reactions — on Gab the volume of questionable posts is about 70% of reliable ones while their reactions are about three times bigger - the volume and the response come apart, and only on that platform Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[2] |
| weight | volume —distinct-from→ reactions — 0.95 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[2] |
| audit | amplification factor —operationalised-as→ post — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but E is the average number of reactions to a post; the endpoint 'post' drops 'reactions'. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[3] |
| relation | amplification factor —operationalised-as→ post — amplification is defined as the average number of reactions a post receives, which separates how much is published from how much is responded to Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[3] |
| weight | amplification factor —operationalised-as→ post — 0.95 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[3] |
| note | Gab —is-a→ crowdfunded social media — The paper directly classifies Gab as a crowdfunded social medium. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[4] |
| note | Reddit —is-a→ social news aggregation — The paper directly classifies Reddit as social news aggregation. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[5] |
| note | R0 —operationalised-as→ average number of secondary cases — The i.e. clause supplies the study's platform-level operational definition. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[6] |
| note | interactions —operationalised-as→ engagement — The study equates its interaction measure with engagement using i.e. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[7] |
| note | word embedding —operationalised-as→ word vector representation — The paper defines the embedding representation with an i.e. clause. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[8] |
| differs in (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | phenomenological models —contrasted-with→ mechanistic models — reproducing empirical data without versus incorporating growth mechanisms | concept_edges[9] |
| note | phenomenological models —contrasted-with→ mechanistic models — The methods section explicitly distinguishes the two model families. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[9] |
| note | Word embeddings —operationalised-as→ distributed representations of words — An i.e. clause defines word embeddings as distributed representations. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[10] |
| note | coefficient of relative amplification —operationalised-as→ E U /E R — The coefficient is explicitly defined as the unreliable-to-reliable amplification ratio. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[11] |
| audit | interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media —causes→ information spreading — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but 'Our analysis suggests' spreading is driven by the interaction paradigm; hedged. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[12] |
| note | interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media —causes→ information spreading — The analysis suggests that platform interaction paradigms drive spreading; weight reflects 'suggests'. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[12] |
| relation | interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media —causes→ information spreading — information spreading is driven by the interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media or/and by the specific interaction patterns of groups of users engaged with the topic Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[12] |
| weight | interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media —causes→ information spreading — 0.7 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[12] |
| outcome | control — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[0] |
| outcome | control — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[1] |
| outcome | control — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[2] |
| outcome | control — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[3] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[4] |
| weight | R0 > 1 → infodemic — 0.7 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[3] |
| weight | specific timings for content consumption → audience and interaction mechanisms — 0.6 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[5] |
| no type for this | adjusted exponential model → EXP — The paper indicates the adjusted exponential model as EXP; the gate's same-as cues do not include this wording, so the alias remains unhoused. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[0] |
| no type for this | algorithms → content promotion — Algorithms mediate content promotion; mediates is absent from the eight governed types. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[1] |
| no type for this | Google Trends’ COVID-19 related queries → dataset — The query set filters which platform content enters the dataset; selects-or-filters-into is absent from the governed types. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[2] |
| no type for this | R0 > 1 → infodemic — R0 above one indicates the possibility of an infodemic; indicator-of is absent from the eight governed types. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[3] |
| no type for this | R0 → engagement rate — R0 is used as a proxy for engagement rate; proxy-for is absent from the eight governed types. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[4] |
| no type for this | specific timings for content consumption → audience and interaction mechanisms — Platform timing patterns may depend on audience and social/algorithmic interaction mechanisms; depends-on is absent and the statement is hedged. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[5] |
| no type for this | growth dynamics → re-scaling factor ρ — Questionable-source growth is a rescaled version of reliable-source growth, with rho providing the platform-dependent scale; scaled-by is absent. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[6] |
| no type for this | Conspiracy-Pseudoscience → Questionable — MBFC outlets in Conspiracy-Pseudoscience are assigned the binary Questionable label; labelled-as by a classifier is absent from the governed types. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[7] |
| no type for this | Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm → cluster words — PAM is used to cluster words from their embedding vectors; used-for is absent from the governed types. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[8] |
| no type for this | R2 values → linear relationship between reliable and questionable sources — High R-squared values confirm the linear source-class diffusion relationship; supports-or-confirms is absent from the eight types. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | unhoused_relations[9] |
| limitation | reliability is labelled at the level of the news outlet rather than the single article, and the authors name this as the limit of the approach Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| limitation | the definition of `fake news` may be `inadequate, since political debate often resorts to labelling opposite news as unreliable or fake` Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| limitation | Twitter data before 27 January could not be gathered because of API limitations, so that platform's series starts later than the others Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| limitation | Gab has no official API guide, so hashtags were manually browsed and selected by meaning rather than by a documented procedure Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| limitation | the whole dataset is bounded by a keyword list derived from Google Trends Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| quantity | days of data across five platforms, more than 8 million comments and posts Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| variable | platform Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[0] |
| variable | amplification factor Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[1] |
| definition | questionable sources Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | amplification factor Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| concept | questionable — not defined in this paper's own words; news outlets carrying one or more of six named characteristics, tagged at the OUTLET level from a third-party fact-checker rather than judged per article Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[0] |
| concept | reliable — not defined in this paper's own words; outlets showing none of those characteristics - which may still carry a liberal or conservative bias without that compromising reliability Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[1] |
| concept | news outlets — not defined in this paper's own words; the unit the reliability label is attached to, and the paper's own stated limit Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[2] |
| concept | single articles — not defined in this paper's own words; the finer unit other studies label at, named here as what this approach does not do Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[3] |
| concept | platform — not defined in this paper's own words; the environment the measurement is taken in - and, in this paper's central result, what the ratio of questionable to reliable content is a property of Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[4] |
| concept | Gab — not defined in this paper's own words; the least regulated platform in the set, where questionable posts are ~70% of the reliable volume and their reactions ~3 times bigger Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[5] |
| concept | volume — not defined in this paper's own words; how much is posted - which on Gab runs at ~70% of the reliable figure while the reactions run three times higher Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[6] |
| concept | reactions — not defined in this paper's own words; endorsements and comments on a post - the quantity that comes apart from volume, and the reason the amplification factor exists Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[7] |
| concept | amplification factor — not defined in this paper's own words; the average number of reactions to a post, defined here to separate how much is posted from how much is reacted to Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[8] |
| concept | fake news — not defined in this paper's own words; a term the authors call possibly inadequate, because political debate uses it to label opposing news Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[9] |
| concept | keywords — not defined in this paper's own words; the Google-Trends-derived query set that decides which posts enter the dataset on every platform - the aperture of the whole study Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[10] |
| concept | post — not defined in this paper's own words; the unit amplification is measured per - the denominator that turns a count of reactions into a rate, and the reason volume and response can be separated at all Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[11] |
| concept | diffusion of information — not defined in this paper's own words; cross-platform spread of COVID-19 information Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[12] |
| concept | massive data analysis — not defined in this paper's own words; analysis across five social platforms Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[13] |
| concept | Twitter — not defined in this paper's own words; mainstream platform in the comparative study Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[14] |
| concept | Instagram — not defined in this paper's own words; mainstream platform in the comparative study Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[15] |
| concept | YouTube — not defined in this paper's own words; mainstream video platform in the comparative study Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[16] |
| concept | Reddit — not defined in this paper's own words; less regulated discussion platform in the comparative study Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[17] |
| concept | engagement — not defined in this paper's own words; user interaction with COVID-19 content Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[18] |
| concept | interest — not defined in this paper's own words; user attention to the COVID-19 topic Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[19] |
| concept | epidemic models — not defined in this paper's own words; models fitted to information spreading Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[20] |
| concept | basic reproduction number R0 — not defined in this paper's own words; platform-specific epidemic-style growth parameter Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[21] |
| concept | misinformation — information from questionable sources Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[22] |
| concept | spreading patterns — not defined in this paper's own words; growth patterns compared across source classes Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[23] |
| concept | rumors’ amplification — not defined in this paper's own words; platform-dependent amplification outcome Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[24] |
| concept | SARS-CoV-2 virus outbreak — not defined in this paper's own words; disease outbreak generating the information crisis Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[25] |
| concept | global threat — not defined in this paper's own words; WHO characterization of the outbreak Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[26] |
| concept | disintermediated news cycle — not defined in this paper's own words; information environment around the epidemic Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[27] |
| concept | infodemic — not defined in this paper's own words; misinformation peril during outbreak management Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[28] |
| concept | misinformation phenomena — not defined in this paper's own words; false or unreliable information during an outbreak Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[29] |
| concept | social response — not defined in this paper's own words; collective response influenced and fragmented by misinformation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[30] |
| concept | information is consumed and reported — not defined in this paper's own words; seeking and reporting behavior shaped by the news cycle Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[31] |
| concept | behavioral response of the population — not defined in this paper's own words; population behavior incorporated into epidemic forecasts Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[32] |
| concept | public health interventions — not defined in this paper's own words; countermeasures modeled with behavioral response Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[33] |
| concept | communication dynamics — dynamics behind content consumption Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[34] |
| concept | users’ preferences and attitudes — not defined in this paper's own words; inputs mediated by platform algorithms Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[35] |
| concept | algorithms — not defined in this paper's own words; mediators of content promotion and information spreading Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[36] |
| concept | content promotion — not defined in this paper's own words; algorithm-facilitated distribution of content Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[37] |
| concept | social perceptions — not defined in this paper's own words; collective perceptions shaped by the platform shift Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[38] |
| concept | framing of narratives — not defined in this paper's own words; narrative construction affected by social media Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[39] |
| concept | policy-making — not defined in this paper's own words; public process influenced by information diffusion Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[40] |
| concept | polarized groups — not defined in this paper's own words; groups forming around shared narratives Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[41] |
| concept | shared narratives — not defined in this paper's own words; worldview-consistent content around which groups polarize Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[42] |
| concept | comparative analysis — not defined in this paper's own words; same-topic comparison across five platforms Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[43] |
| concept | five social media platforms — Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Reddit and Gab Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[44] |
| concept | 8 million comments and posts — not defined in this paper's own words; approximate dataset volume Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[45] |
| concept | 45 days — not defined in this paper's own words; study observation duration Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[46] |
| concept | secondary cases — not defined in this paper's own words; users newly posting after exposure Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[47] |
| concept | “infectious” individual — not defined in this paper's own words; user already posting about COVID-19 in the analogy Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[48] |
| concept | R0 = 1 — not defined in this paper's own words; epidemiological threshold value Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[49] |
| concept | mainstream platforms — Twitter, Instagram and YouTube Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[50] |
| concept | less regulated social media platforms — Gab and Reddit Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[51] |
| concept | crowdfunded social media — not defined in this paper's own words; class assigned to Gab Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[52] |
| concept | social news aggregation — not defined in this paper's own words; class assigned to Reddit Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[53] |
| concept | collective filtering of information — not defined in this paper's own words; Reddit information-selection model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[54] |
| concept | Google Trends’ COVID-19 related queries — not defined in this paper's own words; query source guiding collection Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[55] |
| concept | 1,342,103 posts — not defined in this paper's own words; post count in the derived dataset Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[56] |
| concept | 7,465,721 comments — not defined in this paper's own words; comment count in the derived dataset Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[57] |
| concept | 3,734,815 users — not defined in this paper's own words; user count in the derived dataset Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[58] |
| concept | interactions — not defined in this paper's own words; engagement actions with COVID-19 topics Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[59] |
| concept | users’ activity — not defined in this paper's own words; long-tailed distribution of platform activity Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[60] |
| concept | long tail — not defined in this paper's own words; shape of the activity distribution Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[61] |
| concept | dynamics of reactions and content consumption — not defined in this paper's own words; similar behavior across platforms Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[62] |
| concept | Natural Language Processing techniques — not defined in this paper's own words; methods used to extract discussion topics Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[63] |
| concept | word embedding — not defined in this paper's own words; word-vector representation of each platform corpus Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[64] |
| concept | word vector representation — not defined in this paper's own words; embedding in which contextual similarity is spatial proximity Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[65] |
| concept | clustering procedures — not defined in this paper's own words; procedures separating groups of words and topics Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[66] |
| concept | cumulative number of new posts each day — not defined in this paper's own words; daily engagement-growth measure Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[67] |
| concept | first situation report — not defined in this paper's own words; WHO event near the cross-platform behavior change Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[68] |
| concept | specific timings for content consumption — not defined in this paper's own words; platform-dependent timing pattern Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[69] |
| concept | interaction mechanisms — not defined in this paper's own words; social and algorithmic mechanisms differing by platform Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[70] |
| concept | standard epidemic models — not defined in this paper's own words; models previously used for social information spreading Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[71] |
| concept | monotonic increasing trend — not defined in this paper's own words; observed growth in new interacting users Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[72] |
| concept | growth mechanisms — not defined in this paper's own words; mechanisms imposed by some epidemic models Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[73] |
| concept | phenomenological models — not defined in this paper's own words; models emphasizing empirical reproducibility Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[74] |
| concept | basic reproduction number R0 — expected number of new infectors Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[75] |
| concept | infective process — not defined in this paper's own words; mapping of new posting after topic exposure Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[76] |
| concept | EXP model — not defined in this paper's own words; adjusted exponential phenomenological model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[77] |
| concept | SIR (Susceptible, Infected, Recovered) compartmental model — not defined in this paper's own words; mechanistic epidemic model applied to authors Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[78] |
| concept | supercritical — not defined in this paper's own words; R0 estimates above the epidemic threshold Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[79] |
| concept | engagement rate — not defined in this paper's own words; quantity proxied by R0 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[80] |
| concept | social contagion phenomena — not defined in this paper's own words; spreading phenomena more complex than epidemic proxies Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[81] |
| concept | abrupt jump — not defined in this paper's own words; Instagram author-growth discontinuity Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[82] |
| concept | continuous models — not defined in this paper's own words; standard epidemic models unable to explain the jump Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[83] |
| concept | Media Bias/Fact Check — not defined in this paper's own words; independent source classifier Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[84] |
| concept | extreme bias — not defined in this paper's own words; criterion for a questionable outlet Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[85] |
| concept | propaganda/conspiracies — not defined in this paper's own words; criterion for a questionable outlet Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[86] |
| concept | poor or no sourcing — not defined in this paper's own words; criterion for a questionable outlet Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[87] |
| concept | lack of transparency — not defined in this paper's own words; criterion for a questionable outlet Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[88] |
| concept | overall reactions — not defined in this paper's own words; likes, endorsements and comments counted as interactions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[89] |
| concept | strong linear correlation — not defined in this paper's own words; same-pace cross-source growth within platforms Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[90] |
| concept | growth dynamics — not defined in this paper's own words; time evolution of source-linked posts and interactions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[91] |
| concept | re-scaled version — not defined in this paper's own words; questionable growth related to reliable growth by a platform factor Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[92] |
| concept | re-scaling factor ρ — not defined in this paper's own words; platform-dependent questionable-to-reliable fraction Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[93] |
| concept | mainstream social media — not defined in this paper's own words; platforms where questionable posts are a small fraction Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[94] |
| concept | coefficient of relative amplification — not defined in this paper's own words; ratio comparing amplification of source classes Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[95] |
| concept | permeability of a platform — not defined in this paper's own words; platform tendency to amplify questionable versus reliable outlets Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[96] |
| concept | Twitter is the most neutral — not defined in this paper's own words; relative amplification near one Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[97] |
| concept | YouTube amplifies questionable sources less — not defined in this paper's own words; relative amplification below one Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[98] |
| concept | Reddit reduces the impact of questionable sources — not defined in this paper's own words; relative amplification near one half Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[99] |
| concept | Gab strongly amplifies them — not defined in this paper's own words; relative amplification near four Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[100] |
| concept | interaction paradigm — not defined in this paper's own words; platform-imposed driver of spreading Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[101] |
| concept | interaction patterns of groups of users — not defined in this paper's own words; engaged-user dynamics driving spreading Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[102] |
| concept | tailored communication strategies — not defined in this paper's own words; crisis strategies informed by social dynamics Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[103] |
| concept | Reddit dataset — not defined in this paper's own words; dataset downloaded through the Pushshift API Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[104] |
| concept | YouTube Data API — not defined in this paper's own words; video and comment collection interface Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[105] |
| concept | Twitter API — not defined in this paper's own words; search and stream collection interface Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[106] |
| concept | stream API — not defined in this paper's own words; one-percent stream sample Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[107] |
| concept | search API — not defined in this paper's own words; rate-limited random tweet sample Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[108] |
| concept | Instagram Dataset — not defined in this paper's own words; manually populated public-content dataset Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[109] |
| concept | URLs — not defined in this paper's own words; external links used to classify posts Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[110] |
| concept | MediaBias/FactCheck (MBFC) — not defined in this paper's own words; classification source for outlet labels Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[111] |
| concept | Factual/Sourcing — not defined in this paper's own words; MBFC category used for reliability labeling Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[112] |
| concept | Conspiracy-Pseudoscience — not defined in this paper's own words; MBFC label mapped to Questionable Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[113] |
| concept | Pro-Science — not defined in this paper's own words; MBFC reliability label Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[114] |
| concept | binary label — not defined in this paper's own words; Questionable versus Reliable outlet assignment Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[115] |
| concept | matching ability — not defined in this paper's own words; share of post domains found in the MBFC outlet list Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[116] |
| concept | Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm — not defined in this paper's own words; algorithm clustering embedding vectors Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[117] |
| concept | Skip-gram model — not defined in this paper's own words; embedding model used for each platform corpus Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[118] |
| concept | distributed representations of words — not defined in this paper's own words; neural word-vector representations Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[119] |
| concept | Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) — not defined in this paper's own words; older text representation baseline Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[120] |
| concept | Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) — not defined in this paper's own words; older topic representation baseline Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[121] |
| concept | linear regularities among words — not defined in this paper's own words; structure preserved by embeddings Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[122] |
| concept | English — not defined in this paper's own words; language retained during corpus cleaning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[123] |
| concept | HTML code, URLs and email addresses — not defined in this paper's own words; material removed during text cleaning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[124] |
| concept | stop-words — not defined in this paper's own words; tokens removed during text cleaning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[125] |
| concept | cosine distance matrix — not defined in this paper's own words; proximity metric for clustering word vectors Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[126] |
| concept | average silhouette width — not defined in this paper's own words; criterion for selecting cluster count Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[127] |
| concept | average pairwise Jaccard similarity — not defined in this paper's own words; cluster-stability measure across subsamples Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[128] |
| concept | word clouds — not defined in this paper's own words; visual summaries used to identify topics Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[129] |
| concept | mechanistic models — not defined in this paper's own words; models incorporating mechanisms of growth Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[130] |
| concept | adjusted exponential model — not defined in this paper's own words; phenomenological model estimating R0 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[131] |
| concept | data-scarce settings — not defined in this paper's own words; settings where the EXP model has been used Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[132] |
| concept | classical SIR model — not defined in this paper's own words; mechanistic susceptible-infected-recovered model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[133] |
| concept | susceptible population — not defined in this paper's own words; population at risk of infection in SIR Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[134] |
| concept | infected individuals — not defined in this paper's own words; infectious compartment in SIR Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[135] |
| concept | rate β — not defined in this paper's own words; SIR contact infection rate Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[136] |
| concept | γ — not defined in this paper's own words; SIR recovery rate Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[137] |
| concept | linear regression coefficients — not defined in this paper's own words; coefficients relating source-class diffusion Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[138] |
| concept | R2 values — not defined in this paper's own words; fit values confirming the linear relationship Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[139] |
| concept | average number of secondary cases — not defined in this paper's own words; newly posting users created by one already-posting user Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[140] |
| concept | Word embeddings — not defined in this paper's own words; distributed neural representations of words Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[141] |
| concept | EXP — not defined in this paper's own words; abbreviation for the adjusted exponential model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[142] |
| concept | E U /E R — not defined in this paper's own words; ratio defining relative amplification Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[143] |
| concept | interaction paradigm imposed by the specific social media — not defined in this paper's own words; platform-specific interaction structure Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[144] |
| concept | information spreading — not defined in this paper's own words; diffusion outcome driven by platform and group dynamics Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[145] |
| concept | perils of misinformation phenomena — not defined in this paper's own words; problem denoted by infodemic Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[146] |
| concept | dataset — not defined in this paper's own words; collected cross-platform content Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[147] |
| concept | R0 > 1 — not defined in this paper's own words; supercritical threshold condition Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[148] |
| concept | R0 — not defined in this paper's own words; basic reproduction parameter used as engagement proxy Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[149] |
| concept | audience and interaction mechanisms — not defined in this paper's own words; possible determinants of platform timing Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[150] |
| concept | Questionable — not defined in this paper's own words; binary outlet label Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[151] |
| concept | cluster words — not defined in this paper's own words; operation performed on embedding vectors Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[152] |
| concept | linear relationship between reliable and questionable sources — not defined in this paper's own words; relationship confirmed by high R-squared Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[153] |
| R0 | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[0] |
When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
Tag layer © the Meta-Tagging Project, CC BY 4.0. The paper text is © its authors/publisher
and is linked, not reproduced. Excerpts shown are short quotations for identification and verification.
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