Sex differences in learning processes of classical and operant conditioning

Christina Dalla, Tracey J. Shors · Physiology & Behavior · 2009 · neuroscience · 10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.02.035 · record dalla2009-sex-differences-in-learning-proces
tag layer · index · concepts · authors · עברית

Where this record's text came from. faceted 2026-08 by reading the locally held text (html); every evidence string verified as an exact substring of that text before merging. Claim relations is empty for the same reason as the Wood 1998 record: the review cites everything by bracketed number and never names an author or study in the running text, so any relation would have to be inferred from a bare citation. Replication status is 'replicated' because the review's central claim is a synthesis of multiple independent primary reports of the same sex differences (e.g. eyeblink conditioning across several cited studies) rather than a single new result; the paper simultaneously flags one contested sub-area (cue fear retention/extinction), which is recorded as a limitation. 2026-08-13 and 2026-08-15 schema-0.3 passes: every quote verified as an exact substring of the staged text and anchored at merge time; concept terms verified present; every edge endpoint an existing node.

3 quotations on this page contain a reference number where the paper printed a superscript. This journal style prints citations as raised numerals — parameters^12,13 — and the extraction flattened them into the line, so the sentence reads parameters 12 , 13 . The digits are citation markers and not part of what the author wrote. The quotes keep them for the same reason they keep every other extraction fault: a quote is reproduced exactly or it proves nothing.

This record’s own method is review, and the tags below follow from that. A review’s findings, quantities and statistics are things stated IN this paper, and some of them report results obtained elsewhere. No tag on this page names a different author. Measured across every review in this corpus, 81% of a review’s tags carry no citation at all — most of them are the review speaking. The corpus does not adjudicate the rest: read an unmarked tag as a claim this paper makes, not necessarily one it made first.

How to read this page. The article itself is not reproduced here — this paper is not cleared for redistribution, so what follows is the tag layer alone. The evidence sentences are withheld with the article. The table at the foot lists every tag the record carries; each row names the facet it belongs to, and the whose words column says whether the tag records the paper's own wording or the tagger's sentence about the paper. Every tag links to each other paper in the corpus carrying it. The machine-readable edition of the same thing is the TEI file beside this one, where the tags live in standOff, and the article is at its publisher via the link below. When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.

Other fields define these differently the same word, defined another way in another discipline
performance 5 fields · sex 3 fields

Tags on this paper

Every tag the record carries, each linking to every other paper in the corpus that carries it. A tag appears here whether or not its words occur in the article — the spans below are only the ones a sentence in this paper licenses. Of the 13 concept tags on this paper, none is grounded in a quoted sentence. All carry the tagger's gloss of what the term means in this paper, which is not something the article can license.

sex differences organizational activational eyeblink conditioning trace conditioning delay conditioning active avoidance conditioned taste aversion learned helplessness estrous cycle extinction performance differential reinforcement of low rate responding The amount of fear generated by the task determines which sex performs better: high-fear paradigms favour males, low-fear paradigms favour females Males acquire and retain the conditioned fear more strongly, and this stronger fear is what drives their superior performance in fear conditioning Divergent coping strategies to shock — active responding in females versus passive behavioural inhibition and freezing in males — produce the operant-conditioning sex difference Adult testosterone acts anxiolytically and thereby pushes males toward the passive strategy that impairs their avoidance learning Dendritic spine density on CA1 pyramidal cells tracks learned-response performance across hormonal and stress manipulations, and is proposed as the anatomical substrate of the sex difference Gonadal hormones act twice — organizing the developing brain and then activating circuits in puberty and adulthood — and the two effects interact to produce adult sex differences estrogens testosterone ovariectomy gonadectomy acquisition retention fear conditioning hippocampal classical eyeblink conditioning paradigm fear-potentiated startle paradigm light-enhanced startle paradigm one-way avoidance task (FR1) two-way avoidance task (FR2) organizational and activational effects eyeblink response escape latencies Density of dendritic spines sex phase of the estrous cycle p-value statistical significance test significant differences are noted with an * review

Legend

second reading	`alternatives`	an independent re-reading of a facet, recorded whether or not it agrees
relation to other work	`claim_relations`	how this paper stands to another: agrees, contradicts, extends, qualifies
claim type	`claim_type`	the shape of the claim: existence, mechanism, method, critique, prediction, null
concept edge	`concept_edges`	an asserted relation between two concepts, with the sentence asserting it
content tag	`content_tags`	a finding, definition, quantity, statistic or variable named in the paper
contribution	`contribution`	what the paper claims to add
limitation	`limitations`	what the paper says its evidence cannot support
mechanism	`mechanisms`	how the reported effect is said to come about
method	`method`	how the paper produced its evidence
object of study	`object_of_study`	what the paper is about — the thing it investigates
phenomenon	`phenomenon`	the effect or regularity under study
research question	`research_question`	the question the paper sets itself
sense	`senses`	a distinct use of a term, quoted where the paper fixes it
transfer	`transfers`	a method or concept carried in from another field

The paper

The full text is not reproduced here. This article is not cleared for redistribution, so the page carries the tag layer only. Its evidence sentences are withheld; the grounding status remains with each tag, and the article itself is at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.02.035. The reading view exists for the papers whose licence permits it.

Every tag on this page

alternatives 3 · claim_relations 4 · claim_type 1 · concept_edges 3 · content_tags 44 · contribution 1 · limitations 14 · mechanisms 12 · method 1 · object_of_study 1 · phenomenon 1 · research_question 1 · senses 4 · transfers 2

Relations on this page carry a quotation for the claim. Where a relation was separately evidenced — and so tested against the vocabulary for its type — the row says so; none of 3 relations here carry that mark. The rest are the tagger’s reading of the sentence quoted beside them.

This record holds no controls. A layer is empty when the tagger recorded nothing in it — which is not the same as the paper having nothing to record.

facet	tag	field	conf.	whose words
object_of_study	sex differences in classical and operant conditioning in laboratory rodents Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`object_of_study`		the paper's words
research_question	where sex differences appear across conditioning paradigms, and whether they reflect learning or performance Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`research_question`		the paper's words
contribution	collects sex differences across four conditioning paradigms, shows the direction depends on the task, separates organizational from activational hormonal causes, and argues females must be included in basic research Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`contribution`		the paper's words
claim_type	existence Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_type`		the paper's words
phenomenon	sex differences in classical and operant conditioning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`phenomenon`		the paper's words
method	review Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: review	`method`		the paper's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: The amount of fear generated by the task determines which sex performs better: high-fear paradigms favour males, low-fear paradigms favour females	`mechanisms[0]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. status: the paper's own words: It is possible that also in: Males acquire and retain the conditioned fear more strongly, and this stronger fear is what drives their superior performance in fear conditioning	`mechanisms[1]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Divergent coping strategies to shock — active responding in females versus passive behavioural inhibition and freezing in males — produce the operant-conditioning sex difference	`mechanisms[2]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Adult testosterone acts anxiolytically and thereby pushes males toward the passive strategy that impairs their avoidance learning	`mechanisms[3]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Dendritic spine density on CA1 pyramidal cells tracks learned-response performance across hormonal and stress manipulations, and is proposed as the anatomical substrate of the sex difference	`mechanisms[4]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Gonadal hormones act twice — organizing the developing brain and then activating circuits in puberty and adulthood — and the two effects interact to produce adult sex differences	`mechanisms[5]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	most differences are organized by gonadal hormones during early development and then modulated by activational effects in adulthood Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[6]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	masculinising a female neonatally is not sufficient; male-like avoidance appears only if testosterone is also given in adulthood Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[7]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	different tasks recruit different hormones - testosterone dominates avoidance, oestrogens and progesterone dominate eyeblink and fear conditioning - because the tasks differ in whether the response is volitional Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	the sex difference survives across the oestrous cycle, so it is not simply an oestrogen effect Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[9]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	an a priori argument that learning cannot depend heavily on hormone level, since both sexes undergo large hormonal changes across life Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	oestrogen dose effects are non-monotonic: low doses disrupt and high doses facilitate active avoidance Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[11]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	The neural substrate of the reviewed sex differences is not established; hippocampal CA1 spine density is offered only as a parallel correlate. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: any claim about the neural basis of the reviewed sex differences: Quotation withheld	`limitations[0]`		the tagger's words
limitations	Performance factors can never be entirely excluded even in the eyeblink paradigm the authors regard as least contaminated by them. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: even the eyeblink evidence the review treats as cleanest: ONE CAN NEVER RULE OUT PERFORMANCE EFFECTS ENTIRELY	`limitations[1]`		the tagger's words
limitations	Sex differences in spatial learning are excluded from the review's scope. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: spatial learning, which the review excludes: Quotation withheld	`limitations[2]`		the tagger's words
limitations	Developmental hormone effects on conditioned taste aversion are absent from the literature reviewed. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: developmental effects of sex hormones, on which the literature is silent: TO OUR KNOWLEDGE, THERE IS NO REPORT IN THE LITERATURE CONCERNING DEVELOPMENTAL EFFECTS OF SEX HORMONES	`limitations[3]`		the tagger's words
limitations	Conditioned taste aversion is confounded by sex differences in sweet preference and in the rewarding/aversive properties of the compounds used, making learning-level conclusions hard to draw. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the conditioned taste aversion paradigm: IT IS DIFFICULT TO STUDY SEX DIFFERENCES IN CONDITIONED LEARNING IN THIS PARADIGM, ALTHOUGH THEY EXIST	`limitations[4]`		the tagger's words
limitations	Findings on retention and extinction of cue fear conditioning are inconsistent across studies. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the retention and extinction phases of cue fear conditioning, in a changed context, measured by freezing: WHETHER SEX DIFFERENCES EXIST DURING TESTING (RETENTION) AND EXTINCTION OF CUE FEAR CONDITIONING, WHEN RATS ARE PLACED IN A DIFFERENT CONTEXT (CR: TIME SPEND FREEZING)	`limitations[5]`		the tagger's words
limitations	sex differences in performance account for some of the reported learning effects, a confound running through the whole literature Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: every learning effect the review reports: SEX DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE ACCOUNT FOR SOME OF THE REPORTED EFFECTS ON LEARNING	`limitations[6]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	some differences may be differences in strategy rather than in learning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: spatial learning paradigms specifically: THIS HAS BEEN SUGGESTED BEFORE FOR SPATIAL LEARNING PARADIGMS, IN WHICH MALE RATS USUALLY PERFORM BETTER THAN FEMALES BY USING A MORE DIRECT strategy - a strategy difference, not a learning difference	`limitations[7]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	lever-pressing differences are attributable to general activity and to what females do instead of pressing Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: lever-pressing measures: Quotation withheld	`limitations[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	conditioned taste aversion is declared difficult to interpret for this question because taste preference, drug reward and the hormones themselves all confound it Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: conditioned taste aversion studies that administer hormones: EXOGENOUS SEX HORMONE'S ADMINISTRATION ALSO HAS ILLNESS-INDUCING PROPERTIES, WHICH CAN IN TURN INFLUENCE CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION	`limitations[9]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	drug-based aversion data cannot be evaluated from a learning perspective because of the rewarding properties of the drugs Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: drug-of-abuse aversion data read as learning: IT IS DIFFICULT TO EVALUATE THEM FROM A LEARNING PERSPECTIVE, BECAUSE OF THE POTENT REWARDING PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF DRUGS OF ABUSE	`limitations[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	human sex differences are small, task-dependent and hard to interpret even when observed Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: human cognition studies: MANY OF THE REPORTED SEX DIFFERENCES ARE RELATIVELY SMALL IN MAGNITUDE AND THEIR EMERGENCE MAY ONLY ARISE AS A FUNCTION OF THE TASK, ITS DIFFICULTY OR THE SPECIFIC EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN	`limitations[11]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	spatial learning is excluded from the review despite being central to the topic Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. duplicate of: limitations[2] · what this limits: the same scope as limitations[2] - spatial learning, excluded from the review	`limitations[12]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	no study exists on developmental hormone effects in conditioned taste aversion Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: developmental hormone work in conditioned taste aversion: THERE IS NO REPORT IN THE LITERATURE CONCERNING DEVELOPMENTAL EFFECTS OF SEX HORMONES, and SUCH STUDIES WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO DO, ALTHOUGH NOT IMPOSSIBLE	`limitations[13]`	1.0	the tagger's words
transfers	the verbal-versus-spatial pattern of human sex differences, used to motivate the rodent work Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[0]`	1.0	the tagger's words
transfers	the sex-skewed prevalence of specific disorders, used as the applied justification for the whole review Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[1]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	a sex difference in this literature is a difference in measured PERFORMANCE, and the review's central caution is that performance and learning are not the same thing Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[0]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	organizational versus activational is the distinction between hormones building the difference during development and hormones modulating it in adulthood - and the two can be separated experimentally by when the manipulation is done Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[1]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	the DIRECTION of the sex difference is not a property of sex but of the task: females lead in eyeblink, fear-potentiated startle and active avoidance, males in fear conditioning, simple lever-pressing and taste aversion Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	difficulty flips the direction within one paradigm - males lead on simple lever-pressing, females on the harder low-rate variant Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[3]`	1.0	the tagger's words
alternatives	claim_type: critique Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: existence — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.	`alternatives.claim_type`		the tagger's words
alternatives	method: narrative review across eyeblink conditioning, fear conditioning, active avoidance and conditioned taste aversion, with hormonal manipulation studies Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: review — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.	`alternatives.method`		the tagger's words
alternatives	phenomenon: sex differences in associative learning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: sex differences in classical and operant conditioning — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.	`alternatives.phenomenon`		the tagger's words
claim_relations	critiques → the practice of excluding females from basic research, and the assumption that their behaviour is like males but more variable Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[0]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	contradicts → the assumption that females are the more variable sex, citing human data showing the opposite Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[1]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	qualifies → reported sex differences in learning, by attributing some to performance and some to strategy Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	supports → the case for including sex as a variable when animal models are applied to sex-differentiated disorders Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[3]`	1.0	the tagger's words
concept_edges	organizational —contrasted-with→ activational Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 1 also in: organizational · activational	`concept_edges[1]`	1.0	the tagger's words
concept_edges	trace conditioning —contrasted-with→ delay conditioning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. differs in: THE AXIS IS THE TRACE INTERVAL, AND IT IS GIVEN AS A NUMBER. 'This task depends on the hippocampus and requires multiple trials to learn because Quotation withheld.' The two procedures are identical except for a gap, and the sentence states the gap AS THE CAUSE of both the hippocampal dependence and the slower learning - so the axis is not a description of the difference, it is the explanation of the consequences. · strength of the relation: 1 · note: separated by whether the hippocampus is required, which is what makes the pair diagnostic also in: trace conditioning · delay conditioning	`concept_edges[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
concept_edges	learned helplessness —operationalised-as→ active avoidance Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 0.9 also in: learned helplessness · active avoidance	`concept_edges[4]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	p-value Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: p-value	`content_tags.statistics[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	statistical significance test Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: statistical significance test	`content_tags.statistics[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Female rats emit more conditioned eyeblink responses than males in both the hippocampus-dependent trace version and the hippocampus-independent delay version of the task. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	The direction of the sex difference reverses in fear conditioning: males acquire and express conditioned fear better than females. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	In the harder two-way active avoidance task most females learn to escape in the first trials, while males need more. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Removing the ovaries in adulthood abolishes the female advantage in eyeblink conditioning, showing the effect depends on circulating ovarian hormones. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	The sex difference in learning emerges after puberty, with none before or during puberty. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Testosterone given to females on the day of birth reduces their adult classical conditioning. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	In conditioned taste aversion females extinguish sooner, drinking the sweet solution again sooner and in greater amounts. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[6]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	After uncontrollable stress, male rats fail to learn to escape shock in active avoidance and become helpless. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[7]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Because females learn trace eyeblink conditioning better, more of the newly born hippocampal cells survive in females than in males. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[8]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Castrating adult males facilitates their operant conditioning. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[9]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	females outperform males in eyeblink conditioning, fear-potentiated startle and most operant tasks Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	males outperform females in classical fear conditioning, some lever-pressing tasks and taste aversion Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[11]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	the direction reverses with task difficulty within lever-pressing Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[12]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	the eyeblink difference persists in diestrus, so it is not solely an oestrogen effect Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[13]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	females retain the conditioned response better weeks later, which argues the difference is learning and not performance Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[14]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	no sex difference exists in spontaneous blinking, in response to the noise alone, or in the unconditioned response Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[15]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	males exposed to uncontrollable stress become helpless while females do not Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[16]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	the helplessness difference survives gonadectomy and neonatal masculinisation, unlike the other effects Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[17]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	oestrogen effects on avoidance are non-monotonic - low doses disrupt, high doses facilitate Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[18]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	physiological oestrogen replacement does not restore the eyeblink advantage; only non-physiological doses do Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[19]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	classical eyeblink conditioning paradigm Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: classical eyeblink conditioning paradigm	`content_tags.definitions[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	trace conditioning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: trace conditioning	`content_tags.definitions[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	delay conditioning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: delay conditioning	`content_tags.definitions[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	conditioned taste aversion Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: conditioned taste aversion	`content_tags.definitions[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	fear-potentiated startle paradigm Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: fear-potentiated startle paradigm	`content_tags.definitions[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	light-enhanced startle paradigm Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: light-enhanced startle paradigm	`content_tags.definitions[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	one-way avoidance task (FR1) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: one-way avoidance task (FR1)	`content_tags.definitions[6]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	two-way avoidance task (FR2) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: two-way avoidance task (FR2)	`content_tags.definitions[7]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	organizational and activational effects Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: organizational and activational effects	`content_tags.definitions[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	eyeblink response Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: eyeblink response	`content_tags.variables[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	escape latencies Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: escape latencies	`content_tags.variables[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Density of dendritic spines Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Density of dendritic spines	`content_tags.variables[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	sex Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: sex	`content_tags.variables[7]`	0.85	the tagger's words
content_tags	phase of the estrous cycle Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: phase of the estrous cycle	`content_tags.variables[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	500 ms — length of the temporal gap between CS and US that makes eyeblink conditioning hippocampus-dependent Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	800 trials — total trace eyeblink conditioning trials given, spread over four days at 200 per day Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	34% / 17% — increase in the density of new hippocampal cells caused by training, in females versus males Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	60% — the responding rate used as the learning criterion that more females than males reach Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	1 mA — intensity of the footshock the rats learn to avoid in the one-way avoidance task Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	30 trials — amount of avoidance training after which some male rats still have not learned to escape Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	EVIDENCE CORRECTED (RE-GROUNDED - THE POINTER WAS WRONG, NOT THE CLAIM) · 800 trials over 4 days, 200 per day — the eyeblink training protocol Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. EVIDENCE CORRECTED: RE-GROUNDED - THE POINTER WAS WRONG, NOT THE CLAIM. The old evidence was verbatim, anchored and correctly cut, and it contained NONE of this claim's numbers (200, 800). The paper states the claim in one sentence elsewhere and the tagger did not use it. the project, 2026-08-23: 'WE HAVE SPENT THE DAY VERIFYING THAT QUOTES ARE REAL AND NONE OF IT ASKS WHETHER THEY ARE RELEVANT.' Confirmed by reading the claim, the old span and the candidate together; the candidate carries every number AND the claim's own content words.	`content_tags.quantities[6]`	0.75	the tagger's words
content_tags	500 ms trace interval — the gap that makes the task hippocampus-dependent Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[7]`	1.0	the tagger's words

Interpretive choices

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What was deliberately not tagged, and why, is recorded per paper by the tagger. Where a paper has no such record, this page says so rather than implying that nothing was declined.