phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | sex differences in classical and operant conditioning— “We focus on classical and operant conditioning paradigms, including classical eyeblink conditioning, fear conditioning, active avoidance and conditioned taste aversion.” | |
| claim-type | existence— “Sex differences have been reported during acquisition, retention and extinction in most of these paradigms.” | |
| method — evidence | — “We review here sex differences as they occur in laboratory rodent species.” | |
| object of study — evidence | — “In general, females perform better than males in the classical eyeblink conditioning, in fear-potentiated startle and in most operant conditioning tasks, such as the active avoidance test. However, in the classical fear conditioning paradigm, in certain lever-pressing paradigms and in the conditioned taste aversion males outperform females or… | |
| research question — evidence | — “Critically, sex differences in performance account for some of the reported effects on learning and these are discussed throughout the review.” | |
| contribution — evidence | — “Minimally, the presentation of sex differences in learning underscores the need to include females in basic research studies [ 30 ]. They are often not included either because of the problems inherent to monitoring the estrous cycle, but also because it is assumed that their behaviours will be similar to males, albeit more variable.” | |
| transfer | from human cognitive psychology: the verbal-versus-spatial pattern of human sex differences, used to motivate the rodent work— “For example, women tend to outperform men on tasks that involve verbal or semantic rules and memories related to personal experience, whereas men perform better on tasks that require the manipulation of complex spatial information, such as the manipulation of shapes in space” | transfers[0] |
| transfer | from clinical psychiatry: the sex-skewed prevalence of specific disorders, used as the applied justification for the whole review— “For example, alcoholism, autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are much more common in men, whereas Alzheimer's disease, social phobias, eating disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depression are more common in women” | transfers[1] |
| mechanism | The amount of fear generated by the task determines which sex performs better: high-fear paradigms favour males, low-fear paradigms favour females— “These effects seem to depend on the amount of fear that is generated and expressed during the learning experience” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | Males acquire and retain the conditioned fear more strongly, and this stronger fear is what drives their superior performance in fear conditioning— “It is possible that males perform better than females, because they acquire and retain the conditioned fear in a higher degree.” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | Divergent coping strategies to shock — active responding in females versus passive behavioural inhibition and freezing in males — produce the operant-conditioning sex difference— “Female rats respond actively to aversive stimulation, such as the footshock, whereas male rats exhibit behavioural inhibition by reacting passively and freeze” | mechanisms[2] |
| mechanism | Adult testosterone acts anxiolytically and thereby pushes males toward the passive strategy that impairs their avoidance learning— “Testosterone has been proposed to have anxiolytic properties and this might contribute to the passive strategy that male rats choose in response to the footshock” | mechanisms[3] |
| mechanism | Dendritic spine density on CA1 pyramidal cells tracks learned-response performance across hormonal and stress manipulations, and is proposed as the anatomical substrate of the sex difference— “Thus, under all these various circumstances, performance of the learned response relates in a positive way to the presence of dendritic spines in the CA1 area of the hippocampus” | mechanisms[4] |
| mechanism | Gonadal hormones act twice — organizing the developing brain and then activating circuits in puberty and adulthood — and the two effects interact to produce adult sex differences— “Thus, sex differences in learning are influenced by both organizational and activational effects of sex hormones, but in a complex and probably interactive way.” | mechanisms[5] |
| mechanism | most differences are organized by gonadal hormones during early development and then modulated by activational effects in adulthood— “Most sex differences in conditioning are dependent on organizational effects of gonadal hormones during early development of the brain, in addition to modulation by activational effects during puberty and adulthood.” | mechanisms[6] |
| mechanism | masculinising a female neonatally is not sufficient; male-like avoidance appears only if testosterone is also given in adulthood— “When females are masculinized by exposure to testosterone on the day of their birth, they do not perform like males as adults [ 84 , 87 ]. However, if they are also treated with testosterone in adulthood, then they exhibit male-like escape avoidance latencies” | mechanisms[7] |
| mechanism | different tasks recruit different hormones - testosterone dominates avoidance, oestrogens and progesterone dominate eyeblink and fear conditioning - because the tasks differ in whether the response is volitional— “It seems that in active avoidance tasks testosterone plays a more important role than estrogens in the emergence of sex differences, while in eyeblink and fear conditioning estrogens and progesterone in females seem to be more important. These tasks differ in the fact that during operant conditioning, the animal must emit a voluntary motor… | mechanisms[8] |
| mechanism | the sex difference survives across the oestrous cycle, so it is not simply an oestrogen effect— “However, the sex difference is apparent even in females that are trained during diestrus, a phase of the estrous cycle characterized by lower levels of estrogens and progesterone ( Figure 1b ) [ 47 ]. Thus, sex differences are evident across the estrous cycle and are not solely dependent on the presence of estrogens in females.” | mechanisms[9] |
| mechanism | an a priori argument that learning cannot depend heavily on hormone level, since both sexes undergo large hormonal changes across life— “It is noted that one would not expect a total dependence of basic learning processes on one or even a few hormones, because the adaptive value of learning is too great. Males and females of all species undergo massive changes in sex hormone availability across their lifespan, so learning cannot be massively influenced by their… | mechanisms[10] |
| mechanism | oestrogen dose effects are non-monotonic: low doses disrupt and high doses facilitate active avoidance | mechanisms[11] |
| critiques | the practice of excluding females from basic research, and the assumption that their behaviour is like males but more variable | claim_relations[0] |
| contradicts | the assumption that females are the more variable sex, citing human data showing the opposite Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[1] |
| qualifies | reported sex differences in learning, by attributing some to performance and some to strategy Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[2] |
| supports | the case for including sex as a variable when animal models are applied to sex-differentiated disorders Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[3] |
| sense | a sex difference in this literature is a difference in measured PERFORMANCE, and the review's central caution is that performance and learning are not the same thing Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[0] |
| sense | organizational versus activational is the distinction between hormones building the difference during development and hormones modulating it in adulthood - and the two can be separated experimentally by when the manipulation is done Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[1] |
| sense | the DIRECTION of the sex difference is not a property of sex but of the task: females lead in eyeblink, fear-potentiated startle and active avoidance, males in fear conditioning, simple lever-pressing and taste aversion Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[2] |
| sense | difficulty flips the direction within one paradigm - males lead on simple lever-pressing, females on the harder low-rate variant Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[3] |
| edge | organizational —contrasted-with→ activational Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[1] |
| differs in | trace conditioning —contrasted-with→ delay conditioning — THE AXIS IS THE TRACE INTERVAL, AND IT IS GIVEN AS A NUMBER. 'This task depends on the hippocampus and requires multiple trials to learn because the CS is separated with the US with a trace interval of 500 ms.' The two procedures are identical except for a gap, and the sentence states the gap AS THE CAUSE of both the hippocampal dependence and the slower learning - so the axis is not a description of the difference, it is the explanation of the consequences. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[2] |
| note | trace conditioning —contrasted-with→ delay conditioning — separated by whether the hippocampus is required, which is what makes the pair diagnostic Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[2] |
| weight | learned helplessness —operationalised-as→ active avoidance — 0.9 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[4] |
| for which use | limitation — any claim about the neural basis of the reviewed sex differences: THE NEUROANATOMICAL SUBSTRATES THAT MIGHT ACCOUNT FOR SEX DIFFERENCES HAVE NOT BEEN IDENTIFIED Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| for which use | limitation — even the eyeblink evidence the review treats as cleanest: ONE CAN NEVER RULE OUT PERFORMANCE EFFECTS ENTIRELY Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| for which use | limitation — spatial learning, which the review excludes: SEX DIFFERENCES IN SPATIAL LEARNING, ALTHOUGH IMPORTANT, WILL NOT BE DISCUSSED IN THIS REVIEW, BECAUSE THEY HAVE BEEN REVIEWED ELSEWHERE Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| for which use | limitation — developmental effects of sex hormones, on which the literature is silent: TO OUR KNOWLEDGE, THERE IS NO REPORT IN THE LITERATURE CONCERNING DEVELOPMENTAL EFFECTS OF SEX HORMONES Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| for which use | limitation — the conditioned taste aversion paradigm: IT IS DIFFICULT TO STUDY SEX DIFFERENCES IN CONDITIONED LEARNING IN THIS PARADIGM, ALTHOUGH THEY EXIST Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| for which use | limitation — the retention and extinction phases of cue fear conditioning, in a changed context, measured by freezing: WHETHER SEX DIFFERENCES EXIST DURING TESTING (RETENTION) AND EXTINCTION OF CUE FEAR CONDITIONING, WHEN RATS ARE PLACED IN A DIFFERENT CONTEXT (CR: TIME SPEND FREEZING) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| for which use | limitation — every learning effect the review reports: SEX DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE ACCOUNT FOR SOME OF THE REPORTED EFFECTS ON LEARNING Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| for which use | limitation — spatial learning paradigms specifically: THIS HAS BEEN SUGGESTED BEFORE FOR SPATIAL LEARNING PARADIGMS, IN WHICH MALE RATS USUALLY PERFORM BETTER THAN FEMALES BY USING A MORE DIRECT strategy - a strategy difference, not a learning difference Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[7] |
| for which use | limitation — lever-pressing measures: SEX DIFFERENCES IN LEVER-PRESSING HAVE BEEN ATTRIBUTED TO HIGHER GENERAL ACTIVITY OF FEMALES THAN MALES AND TO THE FACT THAT DURING TESTING FEMALES ENGAGE TO DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES THAN PRESSING THE LEVER Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[8] |
| for which use | limitation — conditioned taste aversion studies that administer hormones: EXOGENOUS SEX HORMONE'S ADMINISTRATION ALSO HAS ILLNESS-INDUCING PROPERTIES, WHICH CAN IN TURN INFLUENCE CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[9] |
| for which use | limitation — drug-of-abuse aversion data read as learning: IT IS DIFFICULT TO EVALUATE THEM FROM A LEARNING PERSPECTIVE, BECAUSE OF THE POTENT REWARDING PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF DRUGS OF ABUSE Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[10] |
| for which use | limitation — human cognition studies: MANY OF THE REPORTED SEX DIFFERENCES ARE RELATIVELY SMALL IN MAGNITUDE AND THEIR EMERGENCE MAY ONLY ARISE AS A FUNCTION OF THE TASK, ITS DIFFICULTY OR THE SPECIFIC EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[11] |
| duplicate of | limitation — limitations[2] Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[12] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[2] - spatial learning, excluded from the review Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[12] |
| for which use | limitation — developmental hormone work in conditioned taste aversion: THERE IS NO REPORT IN THE LITERATURE CONCERNING DEVELOPMENTAL EFFECTS OF SEX HORMONES, and SUCH STUDIES WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO DO, ALTHOUGH NOT IMPOSSIBLE Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[13] |
| evidential status | mechanism — the paper's own words: It is possible that Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | mechanisms[1] |
| replication | replicated | |
| limitation | The neural substrate of the reviewed sex differences is not established; hippocampal CA1 spine density is offered only as a parallel correlate. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| limitation | Performance factors can never be entirely excluded even in the eyeblink paradigm the authors regard as least contaminated by them. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| limitation | Sex differences in spatial learning are excluded from the review's scope. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| limitation | Developmental hormone effects on conditioned taste aversion are absent from the literature reviewed. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| limitation | Conditioned taste aversion is confounded by sex differences in sweet preference and in the rewarding/aversive properties of the compounds used, making learning-level conclusions hard to draw. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| limitation | Findings on retention and extinction of cue fear conditioning are inconsistent across studies. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| limitation | sex differences in performance account for some of the reported learning effects, a confound running through the whole literature Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| limitation | some differences may be differences in strategy rather than in learning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[7] |
| limitation | lever-pressing differences are attributable to general activity and to what females do instead of pressing Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[8] |
| limitation | conditioned taste aversion is declared difficult to interpret for this question because taste preference, drug reward and the hormones themselves all confound it Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[9] |
| limitation | drug-based aversion data cannot be evaluated from a learning perspective because of the rewarding properties of the drugs Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[10] |
| limitation | human sex differences are small, task-dependent and hard to interpret even when observed Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[11] |
| limitation | spatial learning is excluded from the review despite being central to the topic Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[12] |
| limitation | no study exists on developmental hormone effects in conditioned taste aversion Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[13] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | Female rats emit more conditioned eyeblink responses than males in both the hippocampus-dependent trace version and the hippocampus-independent delay version of the task. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | The direction of the sex difference reverses in fear conditioning: males acquire and express conditioned fear better than females. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | In the harder two-way active avoidance task most females learn to escape in the first trials, while males need more. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | Removing the ovaries in adulthood abolishes the female advantage in eyeblink conditioning, showing the effect depends on circulating ovarian hormones. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | The sex difference in learning emerges after puberty, with none before or during puberty. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | Testosterone given to females on the day of birth reduces their adult classical conditioning. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | In conditioned taste aversion females extinguish sooner, drinking the sweet solution again sooner and in greater amounts. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[6] |
| finding | After uncontrollable stress, male rats fail to learn to escape shock in active avoidance and become helpless. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[7] |
| finding | Because females learn trace eyeblink conditioning better, more of the newly born hippocampal cells survive in females than in males. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[8] |
| finding | Castrating adult males facilitates their operant conditioning. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[9] |
| finding | females outperform males in eyeblink conditioning, fear-potentiated startle and most operant tasks Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[10] |
| finding | males outperform females in classical fear conditioning, some lever-pressing tasks and taste aversion Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[11] |
| finding | the direction reverses with task difficulty within lever-pressing Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[12] |
| finding | the eyeblink difference persists in diestrus, so it is not solely an oestrogen effect Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[13] |
| finding | females retain the conditioned response better weeks later, which argues the difference is learning and not performance Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[14] |
| finding | no sex difference exists in spontaneous blinking, in response to the noise alone, or in the unconditioned response Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[15] |
| finding | males exposed to uncontrollable stress become helpless while females do not Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[16] |
| finding | the helplessness difference survives gonadectomy and neonatal masculinisation, unlike the other effects Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[17] |
| finding | oestrogen effects on avoidance are non-monotonic - low doses disrupt, high doses facilitate Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[18] |
| finding | physiological oestrogen replacement does not restore the eyeblink advantage; only non-physiological doses do Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[19] |
| quantity | 500 ms — length of the temporal gap between CS and US that makes eyeblink conditioning hippocampus-dependent Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | 800 trials — total trace eyeblink conditioning trials given, spread over four days at 200 per day Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | 34% / 17% — increase in the density of new hippocampal cells caused by training, in females versus males Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | 60% — the responding rate used as the learning criterion that more females than males reach Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | 1 mA — intensity of the footshock the rats learn to avoid in the one-way avoidance task Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| quantity | 30 trials — amount of avoidance training after which some male rats still have not learned to escape Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[5] |
| quantity | EVIDENCE CORRECTED (RE-GROUNDED - THE POINTER WAS WRONG, NOT THE CLAIM) · 800 trials over 4 days, 200 per day — the eyeblink training protocol Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[6] |
| retracted | quantity — RE-GROUNDED - THE POINTER WAS WRONG, NOT THE CLAIM. The old evidence was verbatim, anchored and correctly cut, and it contained NONE of this claim's numbers (200, 800). The paper states the claim in one sentence elsewhere and the tagger did not use it. the project, 2026-08-23: 'WE HAVE SPENT THE DAY VERIFYING THAT QUOTES ARE REAL AND NONE OF IT ASKS WHETHER THEY ARE RELEVANT.' Confirmed by reading the claim, the old span and the candidate together; the candidate carries every number AND the claim's own content words. | content_tags.quantities[6] |
| quantity | 500 ms trace interval — the gap that makes the task hippocampus-dependent Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[7] |
| variable | eyeblink response (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[2] |
| variable | escape latencies (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[3] |
| variable | Density of dendritic spines (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[4] |
| variable | sex Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[7] |
| variable | phase of the estrous cycle Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[8] |
| definition | classical eyeblink conditioning paradigm Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | trace conditioning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | delay conditioning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[2] |
| definition | conditioned taste aversion Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| definition | fear-potentiated startle paradigm Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[4] |
| definition | light-enhanced startle paradigm Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[5] |
| definition | one-way avoidance task (FR1) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[6] |
| definition | two-way avoidance task (FR2) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[7] |
| definition | organizational and activational effects Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[8] |
| key-terms | sex differences, organizational, activational, eyeblink conditioning, trace conditioning, delay conditioning, active avoidance, conditioned taste aversion, learned helplessness, estrous cycle, extinction, performance, estrogens, testosterone, ovariectomy, gonadectomy, acquisition, retention, fear conditioning, hippocampal |
| p-value p | as written: p<0.05 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[0] |
| statistical significance test * | as written: significant differences are noted with an * Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[1] |
| claim type | critique — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: existence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.claim_type |
| method | narrative review across eyeblink conditioning, fear conditioning, active avoidance and conditioned taste aversion, with hormonal manipulation studies — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: review Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.method |
| phenomenon | sex differences in associative learning — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: sex differences in classical and operant conditioning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.phenomenon |
When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
Tag layer © the Meta-Tagging Project, CC BY 4.0. The paper text is © its authors/publisher
and is linked, not reproduced. Excerpts shown are short quotations for identification and verification.
· back to index
· concepts · authors
· עברית
© 2026 Shir Sivroni · ORCID 0009-0000-2597-2824