Learning to Encode Timing: Mechanisms of Plasticity in the Auditory Brainstem

Thanos Tzounopoulos, Nina Kraus · Neuron · 2009 · neuroscience · 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.05.002 · record unknown2009-learning-to-encode-timing-mechanisms-of-plas
tag layer · index · concepts · authors · עברית

Where this record's text came from. faceted 2026-08 by reading the locally held text (xml); every evidence string verified as an exact substring of that text before merging. This is a Neuron review, so 'method' is review and the limitations quoted are limits of the evidence base it surveys rather than of an experiment the authors ran — the article states no limits on its own procedure. Claim type is existence (plasticity does occur in the brainstem); the same sentences also function as a critique of the traditional hard-wired view, but that view is never attributed to a named source, so no contradicts relation was recorded. Only one claim_relation qualifies: the Reverse Hierarchy Theory is named in the text ("A theory to account for the interactions between sensory input and top-down processes (e.g., attention, language, and memory) is the Reverse Hierarchy Theory (RHT) ( Ahissar and Hochstein, 2004 ).") and the authors explicitly propose extending it subcortically. Authors field is empty in the queue metadata and the text below the line does not name them. 2026-08-12 and 2026-08-15 schema-0.3 passes: every quote verified as an exact substring of the staged text and anchored at merge time; concept terms verified present; every edge endpoint an existing node.

This record’s own method is review, and the tags below follow from that. A review’s findings, quantities and statistics are things stated IN this paper, and some of them report results obtained elsewhere. No tag on this page names a different author. Measured across every review in this corpus, 81% of a review’s tags carry no citation at all — most of them are the review speaking. The corpus does not adjudicate the rest: read an unmarked tag as a claim this paper makes, not necessarily one it made first.

How to read this page. The article itself is not reproduced here — this paper is not cleared for redistribution, so what follows is the tag layer alone. The evidence sentences are withheld with the article. The table at the foot lists every tag the record carries; each row names the facet it belongs to, and the whose words column says whether the tag records the paper's own wording or the tagger's sentence about the paper. Every tag links to each other paper in the corpus carrying it. The machine-readable edition of the same thing is the TEI file beside this one, where the tags live in standOff, and the article is at its publisher via the link below. When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.

Other fields define these differently the same word, defined another way in another discipline
plasticity 4 fields

Tags on this paper

Every tag the record carries, each linking to every other paper in the corpus that carries it. A tag appears here whether or not its words occur in the article — the spans below are only the ones a sentence in this paper licenses. Of the 23 concept tags on this paper, 1 are grounded in a quoted sentence. All carry the tagger's gloss of what the term means in this paper, which is not something the article can license.

auditory brainstem plasticity intrinsic plasticity spike-timing-dependent plasticity Hebbian anti-Hebbian long-term potentiation long-term depression dorsal cochlear nucleus fusiform cartwheel cells medial nucleus of the trapezoid body auditory brainstem response frequency following response phase locking pitch tracking interaural time differences Reverse Hierarchy Theory corticofugal tinnitus Kv3.1b negative image musicians Synapse-specific plasticity simultaneously disinhibits fusiform cells and strengthens their excitatory input, driving the fusiform hyperactivity that underlies tinnitus Anti-Hebbian STDP reweights parallel-fiber synapses so that inputs predicting incoming sensory activity are weakened, building a 'negative image' that cancels the sensory consequences of the animal's own movements Nitric oxide diffusing out of MNTB principal neurons suppresses postsynaptic Kv3 channels in neighbouring cells, providing intercellular gain control during loud sound Corticofugal (efferent) feedback from higher-order processing levels descends onto brainstem nuclei and is the route by which language and musical experience alter subcortical timing calyx of Held superior olivary complex cochlear nucleus nitric oxide spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) auditory brainstem response (ABR) frequency following response (FFR) Reverse Hierarchy Theory (RHT) relative timing of presynaptic and postsynaptic action potentials sound intensity standard error of the mean fast Fourier transform review

Legend

second reading	`alternatives`	an independent re-reading of a facet, recorded whether or not it agrees
relation to other work	`claim_relations`	how this paper stands to another: agrees, contradicts, extends, qualifies
claim type	`claim_type`	the shape of the claim: existence, mechanism, method, critique, prediction, null
concept edge	`concept_edges`	an asserted relation between two concepts, with the sentence asserting it
concept	`concepts`	an idea the paper works with, quoted where the paper uses it
content tag	`content_tags`	a finding, definition, quantity, statistic or variable named in the paper
contribution	`contribution`	what the paper claims to add
limitation	`limitations`	what the paper says its evidence cannot support
mechanism	`mechanisms`	how the reported effect is said to come about
method	`method`	how the paper produced its evidence
object of study	`object_of_study`	what the paper is about — the thing it investigates
phenomenon	`phenomenon`	the effect or regularity under study
research question	`research_question`	the question the paper sets itself
sense	`senses`	a distinct use of a term, quoted where the paper fixes it
transfer	`transfers`	a method or concept carried in from another field

The paper

The full text is not reproduced here. This article is not cleared for redistribution, so the page carries the tag layer only. Its evidence sentences are withheld; the grounding status remains with each tag, and the article itself is at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.05.002. The reading view exists for the papers whose licence permits it.

Every tag on this page

alternatives 3 · claim_relations 7 · claim_type 1 · concept_edges 6 · concepts 1 · content_tags 48 · contribution 1 · limitations 9 · mechanisms 15 · method 1 · object_of_study 1 · phenomenon 1 · research_question 1 · senses 6 · transfers 5

Relations on this page carry a quotation for the claim. Where a relation was separately evidenced — and so tested against the vocabulary for its type — the row says so; none of 6 relations here carry that mark. The rest are the tagger’s reading of the sentence quoted beside them.

This record holds no controls. A layer is empty when the tagger recorded nothing in it — which is not the same as the paper having nothing to record.

facet	tag	field	conf.	whose words
object_of_study	whether the auditory brainstem, long treated as a hard-wired relay optimised for timing, is a site of experience-dependent plasticity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`object_of_study`		the paper's words
research_question	does the mammalian auditory brainstem express the cellular mechanisms that could support the learning effects seen in humans Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`research_question`		the paper's words
contribution	assembles slice physiology and human evoked-potential evidence to overturn the view that early auditory processing is non-plastic, and identifies cell-specific synaptic and intrinsic plasticity in brainstem nuclei Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`contribution`		the paper's words
claim_type	existence Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_type`		the paper's words
phenomenon	auditory brainstem plasticity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`phenomenon`		the paper's words
method	review Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: review	`method`		the paper's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Synapse-specific plasticity simultaneously disinhibits fusiform cells and strengthens their excitatory input, driving the fusiform hyperactivity that underlies tinnitus	`mechanisms[0]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Anti-Hebbian STDP reweights parallel-fiber synapses so that inputs predicting incoming sensory activity are weakened, building a 'negative image' that cancels the sensory consequences of the animal's own movements	`mechanisms[1]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Nitric oxide diffusing out of MNTB principal neurons suppresses postsynaptic Kv3 channels in neighbouring cells, providing intercellular gain control during loud sound	`mechanisms[2]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	mechanisms Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Corticofugal (efferent) feedback from higher-order processing levels descends onto brainstem nuclei and is the route by which language and musical experience alter subcortical timing	`mechanisms[3]`		the tagger's words
mechanisms	the field inferred incapacity from function - a structure optimised for fast reliable signalling was assumed to be ill-suited to plasticity, and the test was not run Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[4]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	and effort was directed to the cortex instead, which is where the plasticity literature accumulated Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[5]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	the reversal is built from two independent lines that meet in the middle - slice physiology in animals and non-invasive evoked potentials in humans Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[6]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	adding an in-vivo-like feature to the standard slice preparation reversed a standing conclusion about the same nucleus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[7]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	and the authors generalise the warning rather than confining it to that result Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	plasticity is shown to be feature-specific rather than a gain change, which is what makes it evidence of learning rather than of arousal Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[9]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	the functional interpretation of the dorsal cochlear nucleus is imported wholesale from the electrosensory lobe of a fish, where anti-Hebbian plasticity cancels self-generated input Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	the argument that the same job exists in audition is made by matching the problem, not the anatomy - both systems must separate external signals from self-generated ones Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[11]`	1.0	the tagger's words
mechanisms	human timescales are stacked deliberately: lifelong language and musical experience, then training over weeks, then attention within a session Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[12]`	0.95	the tagger's words
mechanisms	the same plasticity mechanisms are used to explain a pathology, which converts the review's claim into something testable in tinnitus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[13]`	0.95	the tagger's words
mechanisms	a theory built for visual cortex is extended below the cortex, and the extension is flagged as the authors' view rather than an established result Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`mechanisms[14]`	0.95	the tagger's words
limitations	The synaptic-plasticity evidence base comes overwhelmingly from brain slices, which differ substantially from the intact brain. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: every plasticity claim in the review: MOST STUDIES OF SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY IN THE AUDITORY BRAINSTEM HAVE BEEN PERFORMED IN BRAIN SLICES	`limitations[0]`		the tagger's words
limitations	How naturally occurring noise exposure would induce the plasticity proposed to underlie tinnitus is not established. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the tinnitus account specifically: it is obvious that ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF PARALLEL FIBERS CAN INDUCE SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY, but how naturally occurring noise exposure would do so is not established	`limitations[1]`		the tagger's words
limitations	How brainstem pathways adapt to ongoing sensory activity and contribute to perception of environmental sound remains largely unknown. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: what the brainstem literature covers: MUCH LESS IS KNOWN ABOUT HOW THESE PATHWAYS ADAPT TO ONGOING SENSORY ACTIVITY AND HOW THEY CONTRIBUTE TO THE PERCEPTION AND INTERPRETATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL SOUNDS, INCLUDING SPEECH	`limitations[2]`		the tagger's words
limitations	most of the plasticity evidence comes from slices, which differ from the intact brain in ways that have already changed one conclusion Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the plasticity evidence base as a whole: Quotation withheld THIS EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH HAS SUBSTANTIAL DIFFERENCES FROM STUDYING INTACT BRAINS IN VIVO	`limitations[3]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	how noise exposure would induce the plasticity proposed to cause tinnitus is not established Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. duplicate of: limitations[1] · what this limits: the same scope as limitations[1] - how naturally occurring noise exposure would induce the plasticity proposed to underlie tinnitus is not established	`limitations[4]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	the pathophysiology of tinnitus remains poorly understood despite its prevalence Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: any mechanistic claim about the disorder: DESPITE THE WIDE PREVALENCE OF TINNITUS, THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE DISORDER IS POORLY UNDERSTOOD	`limitations[5]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	whether the fish-derived cancellation function applies to the dorsal cochlear nucleus is posed as an open question, not answered Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the transfer of the cancellation function from the fish circuit: A KEY QUESTION IS WHETHER ANTI-HEBBIAN PLASTICITY OBSERVED IN THE DCN CAN SERVE A SIMILAR FUNCTION	`limitations[6]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	whether brainstem plasticity is driven top-down, locally, or by both is unresolved Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. what this limits: the locus of control for brainstem plasticity: whether changes are INITIATED/MODULATED IN A TOP-DOWN FASHION ... OR THROUGH LOCAL MECHANISMS OF ADAPTATION is unresolved	`limitations[7]`	1.0	the tagger's words
limitations	how these pathways adapt and contribute to perception is much less understood than how they transmit timing Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. duplicate of: limitations[2] · what this limits: the same scope as limitations[2] - transmission of timing is understood far better than adaptation or perception	`limitations[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
transfers	The Reverse Hierarchy Theory, first formulated to describe top-down influence of higher visual cortical areas on lower ones, is taken over to explain top-down modulation of auditory processing and extended below cortex to the brainstem. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[0]`		the tagger's words
transfers	The adaptive-sensory-processor / 'negative image' account of anti-Hebbian STDP in the cerebellum-like electrosensory lobe is imported as a candidate functional model for the mammalian dorsal cochlear nucleus. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[1]`		the tagger's words
transfers	anti-Hebbian STDP building a negative image that cancels the sensory consequences of the animal's own movements, imported as the candidate function of the dorsal cochlear nucleus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
transfers	the Reverse Hierarchy Theory, built for higher-to-lower visual cortical areas and extended here to corticofugal control of the brainstem Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[3]`	0.95	the tagger's words
transfers	the parallel-fiber and climbing-fiber arrangement, used both as the structural analogy for the DCN and as the model for how auditory nerve activity might induce plasticity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`transfers[4]`	0.95	the tagger's words
concepts	auditory brainstem response Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: auditory brainstem response	`concepts[12]`	0.85	the paper's words
senses	STDP - Hebbian at fusiform cells and anti-Hebbian at cartwheel cells; ONE induction protocol producing opposite signs, decided by cell type Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[0]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	the auditory brainstem - as a hard-wired relay optimised for timing versus as a plastic, experience-modified structure; the paper is the transition between the two readings Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[1]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	plasticity - synaptic (changed connection strength) versus intrinsic (changed excitability through ion channels); the review insists a circuit needs one or the other Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	experience effects - as a generalised gain change versus as feature-specific alteration; only the second counts as learning Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[3]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	the MNTB - as a simple faithful relay versus as a nucleus that fails under realistic activity; the reading depends on what the slice preparation includes Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[4]`	1.0	the tagger's words
senses	brainstem plasticity - as adaptive learning versus as the cause of a disease; the same mechanism read with opposite valence in tinnitus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`senses[5]`	0.95	the tagger's words
alternatives	claim_type: critique Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: existence — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.	`alternatives.claim_type`		the tagger's words
alternatives	method: narrative review pairing rodent brain-slice recordings of synaptic and intrinsic plasticity with non-invasive human auditory brainstem responses Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: review — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.	`alternatives.method`		the tagger's words
alternatives	phenomenon: experience-dependent plasticity in subcortical auditory processing Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value. Recorded: auditory brainstem plasticity — note: a second reading, verbatim-verified, disagreeing with the value on the record. Not applied - a person decides.	`alternatives.phenomenon`		the tagger's words
claim_relations	extends → Reverse Hierarchy Theory (Ahissar and Hochstein, 2004) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[0]`		the tagger's words
claim_relations	contradicts → the traditional view that early sensory processing stages are hard-wired and non-plastic Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[1]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	critiques → the inference from specialisation for precise timing to incapacity for plasticity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[2]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	contradicts → the treatment of the MNTB as a simple and faithful relay nucleus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[3]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	builds-on → Krishnan and colleagues, who first showed that language experience alters brainstem pitch encoding Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[4]`	1.0	the tagger's words
claim_relations	extends → the Reverse Hierarchy Theory, from intracortical feedback to subcortical processing Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[5]`	0.95	the tagger's words
claim_relations	supports → the account of tinnitus as centrally maintained rather than purely cochlear Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`claim_relations[6]`	0.9	the tagger's words
concept_edges	Hebbian —contrasted-with→ anti-Hebbian Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 1 also in: Hebbian · anti-Hebbian	`concept_edges[0]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	fusiform —contrasted-with→ cartwheel cells Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 1 also in: fusiform · cartwheel cells	`concept_edges[1]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	RETRACTED (WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART) · intrinsic plasticity —is-a→ plasticity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. RETRACTED: WRONG TYPE: a KIND, not a PART. Intrinsic plasticity is a sort of plasticity, not a component of it. — strength of the relation: 0.95 also in: intrinsic plasticity · plasticity	`concept_edges[2]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	frequency following response —part-of→ auditory brainstem response Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 1 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span writes 'ABR'; endpoint abbreviated. also in: frequency following response · auditory brainstem response	`concept_edges[3]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	plasticity —causes→ tinnitus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 0.75 Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but plasticity-driven disinhibition is linked to tinnitus; causes is loose. also in: plasticity · tinnitus	`concept_edges[4]`		the tagger's words
concept_edges	dorsal cochlear nucleus —part-of→ auditory brainstem Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. strength of the relation: 0.95 also in: dorsal cochlear nucleus · auditory brainstem	`concept_edges[7]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	standard error of the mean Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: standard error of the mean	`content_tags.statistics[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	fast Fourier transform Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: fast Fourier transform	`content_tags.statistics[1]`	0.75	the tagger's words
content_tags	phase locking Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: phase locking	`content_tags.statistics[2]`	0.95	the tagger's words
content_tags	Contrary to the traditional view that early sensory stages are not plastic, the auditory brainstem is dynamic. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	In the dorsal cochlear nucleus one protocol produces LTP in fusiform cells and LTD in cartwheel cells. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Language experience reshapes brainstem coding: speakers of tonal languages show enhanced neural representation of pitch. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Experience-driven changes in the brainstem are selective to particular stimulus features rather than an across-the-board amplification of all responses. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Acoustic environment tunes intrinsic excitability: in quiet conditions PKC phosphorylation of Kv3.1b potassium channels lowers the potassium current so that neurons fire only at low frequencies. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	The medial nucleus of the trapezoid body is not a faithful relay: under in-vivo-like spontaneous activity it fails to entrain reliably to prolonged high-frequency stimuli because of short-term plasticity, even though it still encodes stimulus onset precisely. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	The authors argue that the Reverse Hierarchy Theory, formulated for cortex, extends to subcortical processing and may itself initiate or modulate brainstem plasticity. Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[6]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	one induction protocol produces LTP in fusiform cells and LTD in cartwheel cells Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[7]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	speakers of tonal languages have enhanced neural representation of pitch in the brainstem Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	musical experience produces more robust brainstem encoding of speech, linguistic pitch patterns and vocal emotion Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[9]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	brainstem encoding is disrupted in subsets of poor readers and children with autism Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	brainstem responses are affected by attention and are larger to a speech syllable than to its time-reversed version Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[11]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	experience does not produce a generalised gain change but alters specific stimulus features Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[12]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	brainstem processing can also be changed by auditory training over weeks, not only by lifelong experience Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[13]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	adding in-vivo-like spontaneous activity to MNTB slices revealed synaptic failures at high frequency that earlier studies had not seen Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[14]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	so the MNTB is not a simple faithful relay and may not entrain reliably to sustained high-frequency input Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[15]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	phosphorylation state of Kv3.1b channels sets whether neurons fire at low or high frequency, tracking the acoustic environment Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[16]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	activity in one MNTB neuron can modulate the excitability of its neighbours, a candidate gain reduction in loud noise Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[17]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	retrograde GABA signalling in the lateral superior olive adjusts the excitation-inhibition balance underlying sound localisation Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[18]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	synapse-specific plasticity that disinhibits and excites fusiform cells can produce hyperactivity like that seen in animals with behavioural signs of tinnitus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[19]`	0.85	the tagger's words
content_tags	cortical activation shapes the tuning of cochlear nucleus neurons, giving a route for top-down control Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.findings[20]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	intrinsic plasticity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: intrinsic plasticity	`content_tags.definitions[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP)	`content_tags.definitions[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	auditory brainstem response (ABR) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: auditory brainstem response (ABR)	`content_tags.definitions[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	frequency following response (FFR) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: frequency following response (FFR)	`content_tags.definitions[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	tinnitus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: tinnitus	`content_tags.definitions[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	pitch tracking Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: pitch tracking	`content_tags.definitions[5]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	Reverse Hierarchy Theory (RHT) Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Reverse Hierarchy Theory (RHT)	`content_tags.definitions[6]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	auditory brainstem response Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: auditory brainstem response	`content_tags.definitions[7]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	frequency following response Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: frequency following response	`content_tags.definitions[8]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	spike-timing-dependent plasticity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: spike-timing-dependent plasticity	`content_tags.definitions[9]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	intrinsic plasticity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: intrinsic plasticity	`content_tags.definitions[10]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	Tinnitus Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Tinnitus	`content_tags.definitions[11]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	Reverse Hierarchy Theory Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: Reverse Hierarchy Theory	`content_tags.definitions[12]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	<4000 Hz — Upper frequency limit of the 'low-frequency' sounds that the binaural timing circuitry of the mammalian brainstem is specialised to localise Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[0]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	4–12 µm — Diameter of the myelinated globular-bushy-cell axons giving rise to the calyx of Held, large enough to give fast conduction velocity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[1]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	200 µs — Delay with which inhibitory input reaches the cat lateral superior olive after the excitatory input Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[2]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	40 ms time bins, 1 ms interval — Window length and step of the running short-term Fourier analysis used to extract pitch contours from the brainstem response Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[3]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	0.5 ms — Scale of the x-axis tick marks in Figure 1, indicating that the experience-related timing disruptions and enhancements are of the order of tenths of a millisecond Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[4]`		the tagger's words
content_tags	<4000 Hz — the low-frequency range localised by interaural timing in mammals Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[5]`	0.85	the tagger's words
content_tags	microsecond range — the interaural phase differences the brainstem resolves Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[6]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	last 10 years — the period over which brainstem timing mechanisms were worked out Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above.	`content_tags.quantities[7]`	0.8	the tagger's words
content_tags	relative timing of presynaptic and postsynaptic action potentials Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: relative timing of presynaptic and postsynaptic action potentials	`content_tags.variables[0]`	1.0	the tagger's words
content_tags	sound intensity Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: sound intensity	`content_tags.variables[1]`	0.9	the tagger's words
content_tags	pitch tracking Quotation withheld — this record is not cleared for redistribution. The sentence is in the paper at the link above. also in: pitch tracking	`content_tags.variables[2]`	0.8	the tagger's words

Interpretive choices

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