phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | decision confidence in value-based choice— “Here we implement such an approach to dissociate value and confidence during decision-making, and to identify their respective neural substrates.” | |
| claim-type | mechanism— “Here we show that decision confidence emerges from a value-comparison process in vmPFC, and that this region is in turn accessed by rRLPFC to enable a subjective assessment of confidence.” | |
| method — evidence | — “Scanning acquisition was performed using a Siemens 3.0 Telsa Allegra MRI Scanner (Erlangen, Germany).” | |
| object of study — evidence | — “Decisions are never perfect with confidence in one’s choices fluctuating over time. How subjective confidence and valuation of choice options interact at the level of brain and behavior is unknown.” | |
| research question — evidence | — “In contrast, the field of perceptual decision-making has highlighted the fact that confidence can be measured independently of the choice process itself 9 , 10 , where it is conceptualized as reflecting a “second-order” metacognitive evaluation. Critically, dissociating confidence from other features of the decision process requires… | |
| contribution — evidence | — “Our findings provide a mechanistic link between noise in value comparison and metacognitive awareness of choice, enabling us both to want and to express knowledge of what we want.” | |
| transfer | from behavioural economics: the BDM incentive-compatible auction, used to elicit each participant's willingness-to-pay as an objective measure of item value— “BDM is widely used in behavioural economics and neuroeconomics to elicit non-strategic reservation prices also known as willingness-to-pay (WTP).” | transfers[0] |
| transfer | from perceptual decision-making research: the idea that confidence is a second-order metacognitive judgement measurable separately from the choice itself, imported into value-based choice— “In contrast, the field of perceptual decision-making has highlighted the fact that confidence can be measured independently of the choice process itself” | transfers[1] |
| transfer | from perceptual decision-making: the second-order framing of confidence and the requirement to measure it separately from choice— “In contrast, the field of perceptual decision-making has highlighted the fact that confidence can be measured independently of the choice process itself 9 , 10 , where it is conceptualized as reflecting a “second-order” metacognitive evaluation. Critically, dissociating confidence from other features of the decision process requires… | transfers[2] |
| transfer | from experimental economics: the BDM auction, used to make stated values incentive-compatible— “To establish value for individual items we asked participants at the end of the scanning session to place a bid for each food item using a standard incentive compatible procedure, the Becker–DeGroot–Marschak (BDM) mechanism 15 . BDM is widely used in behavioural economics and neuroeconomics to elicit non-strategic reservation prices also… | transfers[3] |
| transfer | from sequential sampling theory: the race model, imported from perceptual choice into value-based choice— “We adapted a race model 7 , 21 wherein evidence in favor of each option (the snacks presented on the left and right side of the screen) is accumulated over time and the decision is made on the basis of the first option to reach a threshold ( Figure 2b ). In this model confidence is defined as the absolute difference between the two… | transfers[4] |
| mechanism | Confidence arises because evidence for each option accumulates stochastically during value comparison, so trial-to-trial noise makes the final gap between accumulators (and hence confidence, speed and accuracy) vary even at fixed initial value difference.— “This model predicts that subjective confidence reflects the stochastic accumulation of evidence during the value comparison process.” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | Inter-trial noise in the comparison process drives the joint pattern of confidence, reaction time and accuracy.— “The intuition is that, even within a particular level of initial DV, inter-trial noise in the value comparison process results in some trials having greater final DV’s (higher confidence) than others.” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | Confidence computed in vmPFC becomes reportable by being read out by a hierarchically distinct second-order network in rRLPFC.— “One computationally plausible hypothesis is an hierarchical model where confidence in a comparison process is “read out” by an anatomically distinct second-order network” | mechanisms[2] |
| mechanism | Noise added at the read-out stage degrades the correspondence between reported confidence and actual accuracy, producing individual differences in metacognition.— “Intuitively, if reported confidence is a noisy facsimile of the confidence inherent in a decision process, the relationship between confidence and behavior will weaken, and metacognitive accuracy will decrease 26 .” | mechanisms[3] |
| mechanism | in the race model confidence is the gap between the two accumulators when one crosses threshold, so it tracks trial-to-trial noise rather than the starting value difference— “We adapted a race model 7 , 21 wherein evidence in favor of each option (the snacks presented on the left and right side of the screen) is accumulated over time and the decision is made on the basis of the first option to reach a threshold ( Figure 2b ). In this model confidence is defined as the absolute difference between the two… | mechanisms[4] |
| mechanism | the same noise makes a trial faster, more accurate and more confident at once, which is why the three covary without any of them causing the others— “The intuition is that, even within a particular level of initial DV, inter-trial noise in the value comparison process results in some trials having greater final DV’s (higher confidence) than others. Such decisions will tend to be made more quickly, be more accurate, and be associated with higher confidence” | mechanisms[5] |
| mechanism | because confidence follows the stochastic path rather than the initial difference, the model itself explains why value and confidence come apart— “Finally, since the model predicts that confidence reflects the stochastic evolution of a value comparison process, it will only be weakly related to initial DV. This feature of the model provides a parsimonious explanation for why DV and confidence are dissociable in our behavioural data.” | mechanisms[6] |
| mechanism | a second-order region reads confidence out of the comparison process, and how faithfully it does so varies between people— “An additional parameter (σ conf ) governs the noise in the read-out of Δe (i.e. decision confidence). If σ conf is zero the information about confidence (Δe) is uncorrupted, resulting in a… | mechanisms[7] |
| builds-on | the race model of evidence accumulation and decision confidence (refs 7, 21) | claim_relations[0] |
| builds-on | Insabato et al.'s two-layer neural network account of confidence read-out (ref 18) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[1] |
| extends | earlier studies that defined decision confidence in terms of the factors governing choice (rat orbitofrontal firing rates, ref 7; human vmPFC fMRI, ref 8) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[2] |
| critiques | earlier studies that defined confidence through the factors governing choice, which cannot separate confidence from value Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[3] |
| extends | the perceptual decision-making tradition of measuring confidence independently of choice Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[4] |
| extends | race models of decision confidence, applied here to value-based rather than perceptual choice Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[5] |
| supports | the account of vmPFC as a dynamic accumulator of choice values Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[6] |
| supports | two-layer architectures in which a second-order network reads out first-order performance Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[7] |
| generalises | rRLPFC's role in metacognition from perceptual to value-based decisions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[8] |
| sense | confidence here is NOT risk: every option has a known outcome, so this is certainty about having picked the better item, not uncertainty about what will happen Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[0] |
| sense | choice confidence (second order, about the comparison) versus bid confidence (first order, about each item's value) - two senses of one word, measured separately and adjudicated by model comparison Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[1] |
| sense | metacognitive accuracy is operationalised as the CHANGE in logistic slope between low and high confidence trials, not as calibration or correlation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[2] |
| sense | the slope of the logistic fit is read as choice accuracy AND as noise in the choice process - one number, two descriptions, used interchangeably Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[3] |
| sense | value here means willingness-to-pay elicited by a BDM auction after scanning, not a rating and not a preference order Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[4] |
| control | each item pair was presented twice with the left-right position counterbalanced — held — rules out that a choice or a confidence rating is driven by which side of the screen an item appeared on Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[0] |
| control | confidence for repeated pairs was correlated across repetitions with the value difference partialled out — held — rules out that apparent confidence stability is just the value difference reappearing - that subjects are re-reading the same easy choice rather than holding a stable confidence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[1] |
| differs in | earlier studies that defined confidence through the factors governing choice, which cannot separate confidence from value — THE AXIS IS HOW CONFIDENCE IS DEFINED. 'However, as these studies delineated confidence in terms of factors governing choice, they are unable to tease apart the relationship between trial-to-trial subjective confidence and decision value.' The earlier work is not wrong about what it measured - its definition makes one question unaskable, which is a critique of scope rather than of result. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[3] |
| note | confidence —distinct-from→ risk — CRITERION, stated: every option here determines a known outcome, so there is nothing to be risky about Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[0] |
| audit | choice confidence —distinct-from→ bid confidence — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span writes '2nd level confidence' and '1st level confidence in the item values', not 'choice confidence' / 'bid confidence'. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[1] |
| note | choice confidence —distinct-from→ bid confidence — CRITERION, and it is TESTED: model comparison shows the second-order measure modulates choice and the first-order one does not Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[1] |
| audit | confidence —operationalised-as→ accumulators — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but confidence was modelled in a race model of accumulators; operationalised-as is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[2] |
| note | confidence —operationalised-as→ accumulators — in the model confidence IS the gap between accumulators at threshold - a definition, not a correlate Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[2] |
| audit | metacognitive accuracy —operationalised-as→ logistic regression — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span writes 'slope of the logistic fit', not 'logistic regression'. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[3] |
| note | metacognitive accuracy —operationalised-as→ logistic regression — the change in slope between low and high confidence trials; a different measure from calibration or meta-d prime Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[3] |
| edge | willingness-to-pay —operationalised-as→ BDM Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[4] |
| audit | difference in value —operationalised-as→ willingness-to-pay — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span writes 'value for individual items', not 'difference in value'. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[5] |
| note | noise in the choice process —operationalised-as→ logistic regression — the SAME slope is called choice accuracy and noise in the same sentence; a record joining on either word joins on one number Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[6] |
| weight | noise in the choice process —operationalised-as→ logistic regression — 0.8 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[6] |
| note | EVIDENCE CORRECTED (RE-GROUNDED) · confidence —distinct-from→ difference in value — CRITERION: value difference explains only 17.7% of confidence variance, and that residual is what the whole design rests on Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[8] |
| retracted | EVIDENCE CORRECTED (RE-GROUNDED) · confidence —distinct-from→ difference in value — RE-GROUNDED. The old span reported a variance figure without naming confidence. This sentence names both and separates them in the paper's own construction - the same region 'NOT ONLY ... BUT ALSO the confidence'. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[8] |
| audit | confidence —causes→ reversed — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but confidence negatively predicted reversal; the edge carries no direction. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[9] |
| evidential status | confidence —causes→ reversed — PREDICTIVE, NOT DEMONSTRATED CAUSAL: 'initial confidence was a significant negative predictor of choice reversal' in a logistic regression. A regression coefficient is not an intervention. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[9] |
| note | confidence —causes→ reversed — SIGN: negative. Lower initial confidence predicts changing your mind on the repeat Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[9] |
| weight | confidence —causes→ reversed — 0.8 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[9] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — held | controls[0] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — held | controls[1] |
| for which use | limitation — the account of what drives confidence: WE REPORT A LIMITED SET OF THESE FACTORS ... FOR WHICH WE COULD EXERCISE GOOD EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| for which use | limitation — the direction of the vmPFC-rRLPFC relationship: RESOLVING THIS POSSIBILITY IS BEYOND THE DESIGN OF THE CURRENT STUDY AND WILL REQUIRE OTHER TECHNIQUES WITH HIGH TEMPORAL RESOLUTION Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| for which use | limitation — the model-to-report mapping: OTHER FUNCTIONAL FORMS FOR THE LINK BETWEEN MODEL CONFIDENCE AND REPORTED CONFIDENCE ARE POSSIBLE, BUT WE DO NOT INVESTIGATE THESE HERE Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[0] - other internal and external factors ARE LIKELY TO AFFECT SUBJECTIVE CONFIDENCE and were not measured Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[1], with the alternative stated: confidence may be CODED ELSEWHERE ... AND IS THEN COMMUNICATED TO vmPFC Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| for which use | limitation — the sample every metacognitive estimate rests on, which is conditioned on the measure itself: PARTICIPANTS WERE ONLY INCLUDED IF THEY USED A SUFFICIENT RANGE OF CONFIDENCE RATINGS (STANDARD DEVIATION > 0.8) TO ALLOW ESTIMATION OF METACOGNITIVE ABILITY Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| for which use | limitation — any joint use of choice and value: value was elicited AT THE END OF THE SCANNING SESSION by a separate BDM bidding task, so the two come from different sessions and instruments Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| replication | untested | |
| limitation | Only a small, experimentally controllable subset of the factors that could influence confidence was measured. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| limitation | The design cannot adjudicate between confidence emerging in vmPFC and confidence being computed elsewhere and fed into vmPFC; that would need a high-temporal-resolution method such as MEG. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| limitation | Alternative functional mappings from model confidence to reported confidence were not explored. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| limitation | the authors state that only a limited set of the factors affecting confidence could be controlled Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| limitation | the direction of the vmPFC-rRLPFC relation is not resolvable by fMRI; confidence could be computed elsewhere and imported Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| limitation | 8 of 28 participants were excluded, including one for not varying their confidence ratings enough to estimate the measure of interest Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| limitation | value is measured after scanning by a separate bidding task, so choice and value come from different sessions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | Subjective confidence was only weakly related to the objective difference in value between the two options, so the two could be dissociated. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | Trials on which participants reported higher confidence showed higher choice accuracy, i.e. a steeper logistic slope relating value difference to choice. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | Reaction time showed main effects of both value difference and confidence, with no interaction. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | The regression model in which choice confidence modulates the effect of value difference on choice fitted better than models using confidence in the individual item bids. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | The confidence-accuracy relationship was stable across scanning sessions and was not explained by trial-to-trial fluctuations in attention. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | Choices made with low initial confidence were more likely to be reversed when the same item pair was presented again. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | The same vmPFC region carried both a value-difference signal and a confidence signal. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[6] |
| finding | Value and confidence had additive but non-interacting effects on vmPFC activity. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[7] |
| finding | Right rostrolateral prefrontal cortex encoded reported confidence but not the difference in value. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[8] |
| finding | The strength of vmPFC-rRLPFC functional coupling predicted how well a participant's confidence tracked their own accuracy. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[9] |
| finding | value difference accounted for only 17.7% of the variance in confidence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[10] |
| finding | high confidence trials showed a steeper value-to-choice slope, so confidence tracks accuracy Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[11] |
| finding | value difference and confidence both had main effects on reaction time, with no interaction Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[12] |
| finding | the model in which choice confidence modulates value difference beat four rivals on BIC Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[13] |
| finding | that model beat the canonical value-only model in 19 of 20 participants individually Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[14] |
| finding | 14.7% of choices reversed on repeat, and reversed choices had had markedly lower initial confidence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[15] |
| finding | vmPFC activity was modulated by both value difference and confidence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[16] |
| finding | rRLPFC tracked confidence but not value difference Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[17] |
| finding | vmPFC-rRLPFC coupling scaled with confidence and predicted metacognitive accuracy across people Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[18] |
| finding | LOAD-BEARING NULL: no value-by-confidence interaction in vmPFC, which is what supports their theoretical independence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[19] |
| finding | CONTROL NULL: no effect of session and no session-by-confidence interaction, so the relation is stable across the hour Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[20] |
| finding | CONTROL NULL: confidence was not predicted by the preceding five trials' confidence, so it is not drifting attention Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[21] |
| finding | CONTROL NULL: mean confidence did not differ between first and second presentation of the same pair Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[22] |
| finding | CONTROL NULL: the vmPFC confidence response was not a categorical response to errors Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[23] |
| finding | confidence for a repeated item pair correlated with itself after partialling out value difference, in 19 of 20 subjects Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[24] |
| finding | DECLARED NOT EVIDENCE: the vmPFC bar plot is shown to clarify the pattern, with inference carried out in a separate model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[25] |
| finding | DECLARED NOT EVIDENCE: the between-subject scatter plot is illustrative only and not the basis of the statistic Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[26] |
| quantity | 17.7% — share of the variance in confidence ratings explained by the unsigned value difference, showing the two are largely independent Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | 20 — number of participants whose fMRI and behavioural data entered the final analysis Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | 340 — total binary food choices each participant made in the scanner, across 4 sessions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | 19 out of 20 — participants for whom the confidence-modulated choice model beat the value-only model by a likelihood ratio test Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | Model 1: 5424; Model 2: 4995; Model 3: 5388; Model 4: 5498; Model 5 5291 — BIC scores of the five competing logistic choice models, lowest (best) for the confidence-modulated Model 2 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| quantity | 14.7 % — proportion of choices that were reversed when the identical item pair was shown a second time Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[5] |
| quantity | F (1,19) = 39.75; P < 0.0001 — main effect of confidence on choice accuracy when the logistic fit was split by scanning session Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[6] |
| quantity | 210.6 ± 72.4 SD; 340.2 ± 53.5 SD — mean confidence (arbitrary units) on choices later reversed versus choices later repeated Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[7] |
| quantity | F (1,19) = 5.1, p<0.05; F (1,19) = 7.6, p<0.05; F (1,19) = 0.7, p>0.5 — vmPFC main effects of value and of confidence with no value-by-confidence interaction Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[8] |
| quantity | 17.7% — variance in confidence explained by unsigned value difference - the residual is what the design exploits Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[9] |
| quantity | 14.7% — choices reversed when the same pair reappeared Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[10] |
| quantity | 19 of 20 — participants for whom the confidence-modulated model beat the value-only model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[11] |
| quantity | 28 down to 20 — participants recruited against participants analysed, after four exclusion rules Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[12] |
| quantity | standard deviation > 0.8 — the spread of confidence ratings a participant had to show to be included at all Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[13] |
| quantity | 340 — choices per participant, each pair seen twice in mirrored positions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[14] |
| variable | signed difference in value (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[0] |
| variable | choice reaction time (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[3] |
| variable | Signal in vmPFC (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[4] |
| variable | change in slope (covariate) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[5] |
| variable | choice confidence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[7] |
| variable | difference in value Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[8] |
| variable | reaction time Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[9] |
| variable | metacognitive accuracy Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[10] |
| definition | choice confidence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | difference in value (DV) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | metacognitive accuracy Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| definition | psychophysiological interaction (PPI) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[4] |
| definition | metacognitive noise Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[5] |
| definition | confidence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[6] |
| definition | race model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[7] |
| definition | metacognitive accuracy Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[8] |
| definition | BDM Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[9] |
| definition | second-order Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[10] |
| key-terms | confidence, choice confidence, bid confidence, difference in value, race model, vmPFC, rRLPFC, metacognitive accuracy, willingness-to-pay, BDM, second-order, reaction time |
| logistic regression | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[0] |
| Bayesian information criterion BIC | as written: Bayesian information criterion – BIC Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[1] |
| likelihood ratio test χ2 | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[2] |
| ANOVA F | as written: 2×2 ANOVAs (factors value, confidence) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[3] |
| t-test t | as written: one-sample t-tests against zero Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[4] |
| partial correlation | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[5] |
| general linear model GLM | as written: general linear model (GLM) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[6] |
| multiple-comparison correction FWE | as written: family wise error correction (FWE) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[7] |
| standard error of the mean s.e.m. | as written: standard error of the mean (s.e.m.) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[8] |
| autocorrelation | as written: serial autocorrelation regression model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[9] |
| Bayesian information criterion | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[10] |
| likelihood ratio test | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[11] |
| logistic regression | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[12] |
| partial correlation | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[13] |
| family wise error | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[14] |
| one-sample t-test | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[15] |
| general linear model | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[16] |
| claim type | mechanism — a second reading reaching the same value; recorded: mechanism Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.claim_type |
| method | fMRI during binary snack choice with trial-by-trial confidence report, values elicited afterwards by an incentive-compatible bidding procedure, logistic model comparison and a race model — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: fmri Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.method |
| phenomenon | decision confidence: subjective certainty in having chosen the better of two options — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: decision confidence in value-based choice Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.phenomenon |
When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
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