phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | spike frequency adaptation— “Spike frequency adaptation (SFA), the decrease in neuronal response strength during prolonged stimulation, is a feature of virtually all sensory systems.” | |
| claim-type | mechanism— “We conclude that the adaptation mechanisms differ greatly among interneurons within this sensory pathway and are a function of their role in information processing.” | |
| method — evidence | — “To separate the contribution of different mechanisms, we recorded from the same cell during acoustic and intracellular current stimulation.” | |
| object of study — evidence | — “The net SFA observed in the intact sensory pathway will typically result from the sum of many processes occurring between the stimulus and the recording site, each of which transforms the representation of sensory information, reflecting a general design principle ( Laughlin, 1989 ; Baccus and Meister, 2004 ). Disentangling the respective… | |
| research question — evidence | — “To separate the contribution of different mechanisms, we recorded from the same cell during acoustic and intracellular current stimulation.” | |
| contribution — evidence | — “We conclude that the adaptation mechanisms differ greatly among interneurons within this sensory pathway and are a function of their role in information processing.” | |
| transfer | from linear systems analysis: the gain function and a high-pass cutoff predicted from a time constant, applied to spike trains— “The high-pass characteristic, however, can be predicted by time constants of SFA. If onset and steady-state response curves were approximated by linear functions, the cutoff frequency f hi for transmission of AM stimuli depended only on the time constant of SFA τ and can be predicted by f hi (τ) = (2πτ) −1” | transfers[0] |
| transfer | from error analysis: propagation of error by partial differentiation, carried through an interpolation into the reported ratios— “Propagated errors were calculated by partial differentiation for all four spike frequencies contributing to the interpolation equation.” | transfers[1] |
| mechanism | In AN2 each spike triggers a slowly decaying afterhyperpolarizing current; during a stimulus these afterhyperpolarizations accumulate, progressively lowering excitability and thereby producing the adaptation.— “In AN2, slowly decaying afterhyperpolarizations during stimulation accumulate over time and lead to an activity-dependent decrease in excitability.” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | In AN2 the responsible conductance is inferred to be a spike-triggered AHP- or M-type current rather than a network effect.— “This finding makes a spike-triggered, hyperpolarizing AHP- or M-type current the most likely mechanism behind SFA in AN2 ( Fig. 8 , 4 ) ( Baldissera et al., 1973 ; Baldissera and Gustafsson, 1974 ).” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | In BSN1 the hyperpolarization is not generated by the cell's own spikes but is imposed by presynaptic inhibitory input driving slow hyperpolarizing currents.— “Because these were not the result of spiking activity of the BSN1 ( Fig. 4 C ), they probably are imposed by inhibitory inputs leading to slow hyperpolarizing currents ( Fig. 8 , 3 ) (see also Weschke and Ronacher, 2008 ).” | mechanisms[2] |
| mechanism | A functional design rule: when a neuron's computation depends on the balance of incoming excitation and inhibition, adaptation must sit in the neuron itself rather than in its inputs, so that the balance is preserved.— “if the computation performed by a sensory neuron relies on the ratio of incoming inhibition and excitation, the neuron itself should adapt and not the presynaptic input.” | mechanisms[3] |
| mechanism | current injection bypasses everything upstream of the cell, so the difference between the two stimulation modes is what the pathway contributes— “During acoustic stimulation, the time course of SFA elicited by current stimulation is convolved with the kinetics of all adaptation processes peripheral to the cell, whereas in the current injection it is not. Thus, only if SFA under acoustic stimulation is dominated by intrinsic mechanisms of the cell, the time course and its intensity… | mechanisms[4] |
| mechanism | in BSN1 the hyperpolarisation is not caused by the cell's own spiking, so it is probably imposed by inhibitory inputs— “This pattern was apparent in BSN1, which adapted quickly with time constants <20 ms ( Fig. 3 C ). The strong SFA was accompanied by long-lasting hyperpolarizations ( Fig. 4 A ). Because these were not the result of spiking activity of the BSN1 ( Fig. 4 C ), they probably are imposed by inhibitory inputs leading to slow hyperpolarizing… | mechanisms[5] |
| mechanism | in AN2 long-lasting spike-triggered afterhyperpolarisations accumulate, pointing to an AHP- or M-type current— “Third, SFA can be dominated by intrinsic properties, as observed in AN2. This cell revealed long-lasting spike-triggered afterhyperpolarizations that accumulate over time and lead to a long-lasting reduction in excitability ( Figs. 4 , 6 ). This finding makes a spike-triggered, hyperpolarizing AHP- or M-type current the most likely mechanism… | mechanisms[6] |
| mechanism | a strong enough intrinsic mechanism can overwrite the time course inherited from upstream, which is what AN2 does— “Notably, in AN2 SFA was stronger but slower than SFA seen in receptor neurons ( Fig. 3 C ) ( Benda, 2002 ). Thus, intrinsic adaptation mechanisms may overwrite the time course of SFA in the upstream pathway, provided sufficient adaptation strength.” | mechanisms[7] |
| mechanism | a design principle stated as a conditional: if a neuron's computation depends on the ratio of inhibition to excitation, the neuron itself should adapt rather than its inputs— “Thus, the AN2 may represent a third functional principle for the distribution of adaptation mechanisms: if the computation performed by a sensory neuron relies on the ratio of incoming inhibition and excitation, the neuron itself should adapt and not the presynaptic input.” | mechanisms[8] |
| mechanism | in BSN1 adaptation via one input would carry over to a later stimulus arriving on another, mixing temporal and directional information— “Then, SFA to a stimulus via one input affects the response to subsequent stimulation via another input and will lead to a cross-interaction of temporal and directional information.” | mechanisms[9] |
| replicates | Weschke and Ronacher (2008)— “Weschke and Ronacher (2008) also found a high-pass characteristic in BSN1 with a cutoff between 10 and 20 Hz, which matches our findings ( Fig. 7 C ).” | claim_relations[0] |
| builds-on | Benda (2002)— “Spike frequency in receptors adapts to ∼50% of their onset response ( Benda, 2002 ).” | claim_relations[1] |
| replicates | Prinz and Ronacher (2002); Wohlgemuth and Ronacher (2007); Weschke and Ronacher (2008)— “Whereas the high-pass characteristics as reported here are difficult to compare with previous studies due to the different methods of quantification, the low-pass characteristics predicted by mean frequency confirm known cutoff frequencies ( Prinz and Ronacher, 2002 ; Wohlgemuth and Ronacher, 2007 ; Weschke and Ronacher, 2008 ).” | claim_relations[2] |
| extends | the finding that spike frequency adaptation is distributed across levels in vertebrate visual, somatosensory and auditory systems— “Our major finding is that spike frequency adaptation acts at all levels of a sensory pathway.” | claim_relations[3] |
| confirms | Weschke and Ronacher's high-pass characteristic for BSN1 with a cutoff between 10 and 20 Hz— “In TN1, the gain decreased for frequencies <3 Hz, whereas the prediction by a mean adaptation time constant of 60.0 ms lied at 2.6 Hz ( Fig. 7 B ). For the BSN1, which adapted much more rapidly under acoustic stimulation (mean τ = 18.7… | claim_relations[4] |
| builds-on | Benda's measurement that locust receptor cells adapt to about half their onset response | claim_relations[5] |
| qualifies | studies that infer adaptation mechanisms from current stimulation in vitro or sensory stimulation in vivo alone Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[6] |
| sense | adaptation measured under CURRENT injection and under SOUND are two different quantities on purpose: the first excludes everything upstream of the electrode, the second includes it, and the paper's whole result is their difference Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[0] |
| sense | the adaptation ratio is defined at a FIXED onset response (70 or 140 Hz) reached by interpolation, because adaptation depends on intensity and the two stimulation modes cannot otherwise be compared Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[1] |
| sense | an adaptation time constant enters the analysis only where a single exponential already fits with r>0.8, so the reported constants describe the subset of responses that are exponential at all Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[2] |
| sense | the three cell types are not a sample from a population but one identified neuron each per animal, named by morphology after staining Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[3] |
| sense | the three layers are feedforward with no within-layer connections, which is what licenses reading the three cells as three processing levels Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[4] |
| control | spontaneous activity in the same three cells analysed BEFORE AND AFTER the current or acoustic stimulation — held — rules out a drift in the cell's own baseline as the apparent adaptation - if spontaneous rate had changed by itself, the post-stimulus measurement would differ for a reason unrelated to the stimulus Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[0] |
| differs in | studies that infer adaptation mechanisms from current stimulation in vitro or sensory stimulation in vivo alone — THE AXIS IS THE PREPARATION. 'In the latter case, intrinsic properties of isolated cells or small circuits are isolated, whereas sensory stimulation invokes adaptation mechanisms within the entire pathway.' Two literatures measure the same named phenomenon with methods that cannot see the same mechanisms - the qualification is about what each preparation can possibly show. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[6] |
| differs in | current stimulation —contrasted-with→ acoustic stimulation — THE AXIS IS WHETHER PERIPHERAL ADAPTATION IS INCLUDED IN WHAT IS MEASURED. 'During acoustic stimulation, the time course of SFA elicited by current stimulation is convolved with the kinetics of all adaptation processes peripheral to the cell, whereas in the current injection it is not.' The same cellular process is measured both ways; one route carries everything upstream of the cell with it. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[0] |
| note | current stimulation —contrasted-with→ acoustic stimulation — THE WHOLE DESIGN IN ONE SENTENCE: sound convolves the cell's own adaptation with every process upstream of it; injected current does not. The difference IS the pathway's contribution Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[0] |
| audit | TN1 —part-of→ receptor — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but the span describes a three-layer network; TN1 part-of 'receptor' is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[4] |
| note | TN1 —part-of→ receptor — TN1 receives monosynaptic receptor input and behaves like a receptor, which is why the null model applies to it most cleanly Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[4] |
| weight | TN1 —part-of→ receptor — 0.8 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[4] |
| audit | AN2 —causes→ afterhyperpolarization — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but AN2 REVEALED long-lasting afterhyperpolarizations, an intrinsic property; causes is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[6] |
| audit | time constant —operationalised-as→ high-pass — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but the span says the high-pass characteristic is predicted by SFA time constants; operationalised-as is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[11] |
| note | time constant —operationalised-as→ high-pass — A CLOSED-FORM PREDICTION: the cutoff is one over two-pi-tau, so a constant measured in one experiment predicts a curve measured in another Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[11] |
| note | low-pass —contrasted-with→ high-pass — CRITERION: the two cutoffs are set by different quantities - mean spike frequency and adaptation time constant - and two TN1 curves at different intensities move one while leaving the other alone Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[12] |
| audit | RAM —operationalised-as→ gain function — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but RAM stimuli were PRESENTED to calculate gain functions; operationalised-as is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[13] |
| note | BSN1 —contrasted-with→ AN2 — CRITERION: they look alike under sound and come apart under current - which is exactly the comparison the design exists to make Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[14] |
| note | TN1 —contrasted-with→ BSN1 — and the reverse: alike under current, different under sound Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[15] |
| audit | encoder adaptation —part-of→ receptor — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but the span says SFA arises from encoder adaptation in receptor cells; part-of is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[16] |
| note | encoder adaptation —part-of→ receptor — and the TN1 time constants match the receptor range, which is why no third mechanism is needed for TN1 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[16] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — held | controls[0] |
| for which use | limitation — every TN1 conclusion, over a stated interval: OUR CONCLUSIONS FOR TN1 ARE STRICTLY VALID ONLY FOR ONSET RESPONSES UP TO 150 HZ Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| for which use | limitation — the link from cell-type-specific adaptation to temporal processing: EXPERIMENTS WITH LONG-DURATION NATURAL STIMULI ARE REQUIRED, and were not done here Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| for which use | limitation — any directional or binaural reading: BECAUSE WE TESTED STIMULI FROM THE SIDE THAT ELICITED A LARGER RESPONSE ... OUR PRESENT INVESTIGATION OF SFA WAS RESTRICTED TO TEMPORAL PROCESSING Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| for which use | limitation — the AN2 results at the higher reference level: ONLY ONE OF THE CELLS UNDER STUDY RESPONDED WITH >140 HZ AT BOTH STIMULATION MODES Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| for which use | limitation — the comparison between acoustic and current adaptation ratios: AT THESE LEVELS THE LARGE ERRORS RULE OUT AN INTERPRETATION OF THE RELATION BETWEEN THESE TWO Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[0], with its cause: LARGE SOUND INTENSITIES ELICIT VERY STRONG RESPONSES NOT REACHED BY CURRENT STIMULATION - the instrument sets the bound Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| duplicate of | limitation — limitations[3] Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[3] Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[2] - one side only, so temporal processing only Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[7] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[1] - long-duration natural stimuli are required and absent Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[8] |
| for which use | limitation — the mechanistic identification of the adaptation source in TN1: the prediction that CELLS EXHIBITING STRONGER SFA UNDER CURRENT STIMULATION SHOULD ALSO ADAPT MORE STRONGLY TO ACOUSTIC STIMULI was not borne out Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[9] |
| evidence status note | sense — This quote ends on 'by' because what it introduces is a displayed formula that the staged extraction does not carry as readable text (the text continues: "r a ( I ref ) = f ss ( I ref )/ f on ref . Propa"). The quote is verbatim and the formula is in the paper; the quote was not extended, because extending it would put extraction debris inside a quotation. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[1] |
| replication | untested | |
| limitation | TN1 conclusions hold only up to a limited response range because current injection could not reach the high firing rates evoked acoustically. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| limitation | Linking cell-type-specific adaptation to temporal processing needs long-duration natural stimuli that were not used. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| limitation | Only the stimulus side eliciting the larger response was tested, so directional processing was not assessed. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| limitation | AN2 could not be analysed at the higher reference onset response because only one cell reached it. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| limitation | Large propagated errors prevented interpreting the relation between acoustic and current adaptation ratios in AN2. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| limitation | conclusions for TN1 hold only up to 150 Hz onset response, because current injection could not reach the responses that loud sound could Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| limitation | AN2 was not analysed at the higher onset response because only one cell reached it under both modes Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| limitation | stimuli were tested from the side that elicited a larger response for each neuron, so the investigation of SFA was restricted to temporal processing Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[7] |
| limitation | linking the cell-specific adaptation to temporal processing would need long-duration natural stimuli Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[8] |
| limitation | a predicted correlation between adaptation under the two modes was absent in TN1, possibly masked by propagated errors Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[9] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | Three identified interneurons of the locust auditory pathway show three qualitatively different distributions of adaptation mechanisms: mixed intrinsic/presynaptic in TN1, inhibition-driven in BSN1, and intrinsic spike-triggered in AN2. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | The time course of adaptation is cell-type specific, differing significantly between the three neuron types. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | Spike frequency adaptation is not confined to one station but operates at every level of the sensory pathway. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | Adaptation time constants predicted the cells' signal transmission properties. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | All three neurons displayed bandpass characteristics. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | Which adaptation mechanism a neuron uses tracks the computation it performs, so the origin of adaptation is a function of the cell's processing role. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | three distinct distributions of adaptation mechanisms emerged across three cell types of one pathway Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[6] |
| finding | AN ARITHMETIC NULL MODEL, NOT A DIRECTION: linear composition predicts the acoustic ratio equals 0.5 times the current ratio, and the data were compared against that line Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[7] |
| finding | in TN1 the magnitude of SFA to acoustic stimuli was qualitatively in agreement with a linear combination of SFA in receptors and adaptation mechanisms within TN1 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[8] |
| finding | A PREDICTED CORRELATION THAT FAILED: cells adapting more under current should adapt more under sound, and TN1 showed r = 0.09, p = 0.81 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[9] |
| finding | BSN1 at 140 Hz adapted far more than the null model allows, implying processes the model does not contain Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[10] |
| finding | AN ANALYSIS DECLINED AND SAID SO: AN2 was not analysed at the higher onset response because only one cell reached it under both modes Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[11] |
| finding | time constants were similar across modes in TN1 and in AN2, and differed in BSN1 where sound gave 18.7 ms against 49.8 ms for current Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[12] |
| finding | TN1 and BSN1 showed very similar adaptation characteristics under current stimulation, this pattern changed dramatically in BSN1 under acoustic stimulation, and in AN2 the two modes gave very similar results Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[13] |
| finding | THE TWO-SOURCE LOGIC: an intrinsic current would hyperpolarise after either stimulus, but only sound lets another neuron inhibit the cell Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[14] |
| finding | in BSN1, post-stimulus hyperpolarisation tracked acoustic response strength (r = -0.93) while current stimulation had almost no effect Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[15] |
| finding | in AN2 hyperpolarisation tracked response strength under both modes, around r = -0.92 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[16] |
| finding | CONFOUND NAMED: an absent hyperpolarisation could mean the electrode was far from the spike initiating zone rather than that no current exists Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[17] |
| finding | CONFOUND ANSWERED BY CHANGING THE OBSERVABLE: spontaneous spike counts were used instead, since the recording site cannot affect them Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[18] |
| finding | the spike-count control gave the same answer, and the two analyses agree Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[19] |
| finding | A NUMERICAL CEILING ON THEIR OWN CLAIM: conclusions for TN1 are stated to be strictly valid only up to 150 Hz onset response Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[20] |
| finding | afterhyperpolarisation decay differed between all three cell types: 5.6 ms in TN1, 24.6 ms in BSN1, 118.3 ms in AN2 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[21] |
| finding | TWO INDEPENDENT MEASUREMENTS AGREEING: in AN2 the afterhyperpolarisation decay resembles the adaptation time constant Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[22] |
| finding | the spike shapes explain the offset results: TN1 decays too fast to see, BSN1 has almost none so its hyperpolarisation must be extrinsic, AN2 accumulates Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[23] |
| finding | A CLOSED-FORM PREDICTION FROM AN INDEPENDENTLY MEASURED CONSTANT: the high-pass cutoff should be one over two-pi-tau Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[24] |
| finding | AND IT HELD FOR ALL THREE: in TN1 the gain decreased for frequencies <3 Hz where the prediction lied at 2.6 Hz, in BSN1 a higher cutoff at 10 Hz was observed with 8.5 predicted, and in AN2 a cutoff between 1 and 2 Hz with 1.1 predicted Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[25] |
| finding | the low-pass cutoff is set instead by mean spike frequency, separable in one cell at two intensities Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[26] |
| finding | BSN1 and AN2 end up alike under sound while TN1 stays tonic and locks less selectively Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[27] |
| finding | and the BSN1-AN2 similarity DEVELOPS over seconds - it is absent in the first 100 ms Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[28] |
| finding | in AN2 adaptation is stronger but slower than in receptors, so an intrinsic mechanism can overwrite an inherited time course Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[29] |
| finding | 18 cells in all: nine TN1, five BSN1, four AN2 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[30] |
| finding | MODEL ORDER CHECKED: double exponential fits did not significantly improve on single exponentials Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[31] |
| finding | ERRORS PROPAGATED EXPLICITLY through the interpolation by partial differentiation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[32] |
| quantity | 18 — number of adult locusts used in the experiments Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | TN1, n = 9; BSN1, n = 5; AN2, n = 4 — number of recorded cells of each of the three identified types (18 cells in total) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | 60.0 ± 14.9 ms; 49.3 ± 21.6 ms; p = 0.37 — TN1 adaptation time constants under acoustic and current stimulation, statistically indistinguishable Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | 49.8 ± 14.8 ms vs 18.7 ± 10.9 ms (p < 0.01) — BSN1 adaptation time constants for current versus acoustic stimulation, which do differ Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | 143.6 ± 38.2 ms; 123.8 ± 35.0 ms; p = 0.68 — AN2 adaptation time constants under acoustic and current stimulation, both slow and not different Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| quantity | 5.6 ± 0.7 ms / 24.6 ± 10.7 ms / 118.3 ± 34.7 ms — decay time constants of the afterhyperpolarization in TN1, BSN1 and AN2, all significantly different Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[5] |
| quantity | 2.9 ± 4.3% vs 14.8 ± 4.3% and 12.8 ± 1.5% — relative afterhyperpolarization magnitude in BSN1 compared with TN1 and AN2 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[6] |
| quantity | r = 0.09, p = 0.81 — absence of correlation in TN1 between adaptation ratios under acoustic and under current stimulation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[7] |
| quantity | current: r = 0.04, p = 0.92, acoustic: r = −0.93, p = 0.0001 — BSN1 correlation between response strength and post-stimulus membrane potential, present only for acoustic stimulation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[8] |
| quantity | <3 Hz observed vs 2.6 Hz predicted (τ = 60.0 ms) — TN1 high-pass cutoff of the gain function versus the cutoff predicted from its adaptation time constant Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[9] |
| quantity | 10 Hz observed vs 8.5 Hz predicted (mean τ = 18.7 ms) — BSN1 high-pass cutoff versus the prediction from its faster adaptation time constant Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[10] |
| quantity | ∼0.5 — BSN1 adaptation ratio under current stimulation, constant across intensities Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[11] |
| quantity | 0.5 × r a cu — the linear-composition prediction the acoustic adaptation ratio is tested against Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[12] |
| quantity | r = 0.09, p = 0.81 — the predicted cross-mode correlation in TN1, absent Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[13] |
| quantity | 18.7 ± 10.9 ms against 49.8 ± 14.8 ms — BSN1 adaptation time constant, acoustic against current Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[14] |
| quantity | 5.6, 24.6 and 118.3 ms — afterhyperpolarisation decay in TN1, BSN1 and AN2 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[15] |
| quantity | 150 Hz — the onset response above which the TN1 conclusions are stated not to hold Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[16] |
| quantity | n = 9, 5 and 4 — cells of each type Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[17] |
| variable | stimulation mode (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[0] |
| variable | stimulus intensity (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[1] |
| variable | cell type (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[2] |
| variable | hyperpolarization (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[4] |
| variable | gain function (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[5] |
| variable | onset spike frequency (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[7] |
| variable | adaptation ratio Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[8] |
| variable | time constant Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[9] |
| variable | spontaneous activity Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[10] |
| definition | spike frequency adaptation (SFA) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | rate coefficient Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| evidence status note | definition — THE QUOTE ENDS ON A COLON WHERE THE PAPER DISPLAYS AN EQUATION: the text extraction does not carry the formula, so what this row states rests on that equation, not on the quoted words. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | SFA Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| definition | adaptation ratio Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[4] |
| evidence status note | definition — This quote ends on 'by' because what it introduces is a displayed formula that the staged extraction does not carry as readable text (the text continues: "r a ( I ref ) = f ss ( I ref )/ f on ref . Propa"). The quote is verbatim and the formula is in the paper; the quote was not extended, because extending it would put extraction debris inside a quotation. | content_tags.definitions[4] |
| definition | high-pass Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[5] |
| key-terms | SFA, TN1, BSN1, AN2, receptor, acoustic stimulation, current stimulation, adaptation ratio, time constant, afterhyperpolarization, inhibitory inputs, gain function, high-pass, spontaneous activity, RAM |
| concept | BSN1 — not defined in this paper's own words; local interneuron, intermediate layer Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[2] |
| Wilcoxon rank-sum test | as written: Wilcoxon ranks sum test Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[0] |
| p-value p | as written: p = 0.68 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[1] |
| correlation coefficient r | as written: r = 0.04, p = 0.92 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[2] |
| linear regression | as written: Regression coefficients for linear fits Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[3] |
| nonlinear (exponential) curve fitting with model comparison | as written: double exponential fits did not significantly improve the fit quality Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[4] |
| goodness-of-fit threshold for inclusion | as written: a single exponential fit yielded a regression coefficient >0.8 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[5] |
| mean and standard deviation SD | as written: Mean values and SDs for 10 repetitions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[6] |
| standard error of the mean SE | as written: the mean and SE mean of 10 repetitions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[7] |
| propagation of error | as written: Propagated errors were calculated by partial differentiation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[8] |
| linear interpolation | as written: derived from linear interpolations Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[9] |
| spectral (gain function) analysis | as written: the gain functions were calculated Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[10] |
| Wilcoxon ranks sum test | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[11] |
| regression coefficient | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[12] |
| claim type | mechanism — a second reading reaching the same value; recorded: mechanism Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.claim_type |
| method | intracellular recording from the same identified cell under both acoustic and injected-current stimulation, with exponential fits and gain functions — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: electrophysiology Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.method |
| phenomenon | spike frequency adaptation, the decrease in response strength during prolonged stimulation — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: spike frequency adaptation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.phenomenon |
When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
Tag layer © the Meta-Tagging Project, CC BY 4.0. The paper text is © its authors/publisher
and is linked, not reproduced. Excerpts shown are short quotations for identification and verification.
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