(cid:NN). The PDF this text was extracted from encodes 2 characters in a way that names no letter, so the extractor could not say what they were. The quotes keep them because a quote is reproduced exactly or it proves nothing — the marks are the source’s, not the tagging’s.phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | executive function contributions to mathematics achievement— “In this study we investigated the extent to which executive function skills contribute to these three components of mathematical knowledge, whether this mediates the relationship between executive functions and overall mathematics achievement, and if these relationships change with age.” | |
| claim-type | mechanism— “Domain-specific skills partially mediated the relationship between executive functions and mathematics achievement: Inhibitory control within the numerical domain was associated with factual knowledge and procedural skill, which in turn was associated with mathematical achievement.” | |
| method — evidence | — “Two hundred and ninety-three participants aged between 8 and 25 years completed a large battery of mathematics and executive function tests.” | |
| mechanism | Achievement tests additionally require locating the mathematical problem inside a verbal or visual description and building a problem representation, and working memory maintains and manipulates that representation - which is why a direct working-memory path survives beyond the component skills— “It is likely that working memory plays a key role in these processes in terms of maintaining and manipulating these problem representations in mind.” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | Working memory activates and retrieves number facts from long-term memory while inhibition suppresses the neighbouring but incorrect answers that are co-activated during retrieval— “This is consistent with theories that propose that working memory is required to activate and retrieve mathematical facts stored in long-term memory, and also that inhibitory processes are needed to suppress co-activated but incorrect answers.” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | Conceptual information is stored in a verbal code whereas arithmetic facts also carry a visuospatial component from how sums are presented and encoded, so only verbal working memory supports conceptual retrieval while both domains support fact retrieval— “could be because conceptual information is stored in a verbal code, whereas mathematical facts perhaps also contain a visuospatial component” | mechanisms[2] |
| builds-on | Geary (2004); Geary & Hoard (2005) hierarchical framework of mathematics— “The findings support a modified version of a hierarchical framework for mathematics (Geary, 2004; Geary & Hoard, 2005) in which domain-general executive function skills, in particular working memory, support domain-specific mathematical processes, which in turn underpin overall mathematics achievement.” | claim_relations[0] |
| extends | previous hierarchical multi-component models of mathematics— “We extended previous models by demonstrating that working memory also directly contributes to mathematical achievement (Fig. 3).” | claim_relations[1] |
| contradicts | Cowan and Powell (2014); Fuchs et al. (2005)— “We found that executive functions explained a similar amount of variance in both factual knowledge (12%) and procedural skill (15%), which is inconsistent with the findings of Cowan and Powell (2014) and Fuchs et al. (2005) who found that domain-general factors accounted for more variance in procedural skill than factual knowledge.” | claim_relations[2] |
| contradicts | Andersson (2010); Clark et al. (2010)— “This conflicts with findings from other studies that have examined the extent to which performance on a cognitive flexibility task predicts performance on a test of procedural skill (Andersson, 2010; Clark et al., 2010).” | claim_relations[3] |
| replicates | Hecht et al. (2003); Jordan et al. (2013)— “Together the executive function measures predicted more variance in factual knowledge and procedural skill than conceptual understanding, consistent with the findings of Hecht et al., (2003) and Jordan et al. (2013).” | claim_relations[4] |
| sense | executive functions - AS DIVIDED HERE: three components following Miyake et al. (2000) — updating or working memory, inhibition, and shifting— “These are (i) updating or working memory, the ability to monitor and manipulate information held in mind, (ii) inhibition, the suppression of irrelevant information and inappropriate responses, and (iii) shifting, the capacity for flexible thinking and switching attention between different tasks.” | senses[0] |
| sense | working memory - the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) model, described as adopted by the MAJORITY of researchers in the field rather than as established— “According to the influential Baddeley and Hitch (1974) model of working memory, adopted by the majority of researchers in this field” | senses[1] |
| sense | `updating` / `working memory` - AN ALIAS ASSERTED BY A BARE `OR`, AND IT IS THE LOOSEST JOIN IN THIS PAPER. `These are (i) updating or working memory, the ability to monitor and manipulate information held in mind`. Miyake's component is `updating`; `working memory` is a much older and much broader term that this sentence quietly equates with it. The paper's own later sections then distinguish VERBAL from VISUOSPATIAL working memory and report they behave differently - a distinction `updating` does not carry. The `or` does more work than it admits.— “Executive functions, the skills used to guide and control thought and action, are typically divided into three main components following Miyake et al. (2000). These are (i) updating or working memory, the ability to monitor and manipulate information held in mind, (ii) inhibition, the suppression of irrelevant information and inappropriate… | senses[2] |
| sense | `executive functions` - DEFINED BY WHAT THEY ARE FOR, THEN IMMEDIATELY BY A THREE-WAY PARTITION. `Executive functions, the skills used to guide and control thought and action, are typically divided into three main components following Miyake et al. (2000).` The functional gloss is the paper's own; the partition is attributed, and `typically` marks it as convention rather than fact. Each component then gets a one-clause definition in the same sentence - updating, inhibition, shifting - so the whole construct is fixed in 60 words.— “Executive functions, the skills used to guide and control thought and action, are typically divided into three main components following Miyake et al. (2000). These are (i) updating or working memory, the ability to monitor and manipulate information held in mind, (ii) inhibition, the suppression of irrelevant information and inappropriate… | senses[3] |
| control | a DIFFERENT item set chosen for each age band - 8-9, 11-12, 13-14, and young adults — held — rules out floor and ceiling effects as the explanation of an age difference - a task easy enough for adults compresses their scores at ceiling and would make the developmental difference an artefact of the scale rather than of the ability— “To ensure that performance was not at floor or ceiling level in any group we selected a different set of items for each age group” | controls[0] |
| control | the full list of acceptable strategies - counting in the head, on fingers, decomposition, retrieval - stated explicitly to participants — held — rules out younger children suppressing the strategy they actually used because they believed it was not allowed, which would bias the self-report measure precisely in the age group the study is about— “to ensure that younger participants understood that any strategy was acceptable in this task” | controls[1] |
| audit | EVIDENCE CORRECTED (RE-GROUNDED) · inhibition —part-of→ executive functions — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but endpoint by anaphora: the span continues the sentence whose subject is 'Executive functions' (immediately before the span).— “are typically divided into three main components following Miyake et al. (2000). These are (i) updating or working memory, the ability to monitor and manipulate information held in mind, (ii) inhibition, the suppression of irrelevant information and inappropriate responses” | concept_edges[0] |
| retracted | EVIDENCE CORRECTED (RE-GROUNDED) · inhibition —part-of→ executive functions — RE-GROUNDED. The old span had an elided subject - 'are typically divided into…' three components - so the term executive functions was never named. This sentence names both and places one inside the other: the contribution of executive functions, '…IN PARTICULAR INHIBITION…' and shifting, to procedural skill.— “are typically divided into three main components following Miyake et al. (2000). These are (i) updating or working memory, the ability to monitor and manipulate information held in mind, (ii) inhibition, the suppression of irrelevant information and inappropriate responses”— “are typically divided into three main components following” | concept_edges[0] |
| note | inhibition —part-of→ executive functions — RE-GROUNDS another row of this record: the old span named ONE endpoint.— “The contribution of executive functions, in particular inhibition and shifting, to procedural skill may well depend on age- or schooling-related changes in mathematical content and strategies (Best, Miller, & Naglieri, 2011; Friso-van den Bos et al., 2013; Träff, 2013).” | concept_edges[1] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — held | controls[0] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — held | controls[1] |
| for which use | limitation — the accumulated literature on executive functions and arithmetic: the paper states the evidence is drawn across separate studies, so the contributions cannot be directly compared across the three core competencies— “However much of this evidence is drawn across separate studies and thus it is not possible to directly compare the contribution of executive functions across these three core competencies of arithmetic.” | limitations[3] |
| for which use | limitation — the executive-function components in this analysis: they follow the three-component division of Miyake et al. (2000) rather than being derived from these data— “are typically divided into three main components following Miyake et al. (2000).” | limitations[4] |
| replication | contested | |
| no type for this | updating → executive functions — A CUE-LIST GAP, NOT A VOCABULARY GAP - 'part-of' IS THE RIGHT TYPE. 'ARE TYPICALLY DIVIDED…' The gate refused it because its containment cue list holds 'within / part of / comprises / consists of / includes / belongs to' and not 'divided into'. Measured over all 711 staged bodies: 'composed of' 262 occurrences in 151 bodies and 'divided into' 201 in 137 - each MORE COMMON than 'comprises' (68 in 51), which IS in the list; also 'made up of' 28 and 'subdivided into' 17. I could have passed this edge by omitting relation evidence, because the type-specific cue test only fires when that field is supplied - which is the same shape, and the fact that I can is not a reason to. The edge is filed here until the cue list is amended by whoever owns the gate, and should be promoted to 'part-of' when it is. Note also that this record was MISSING the third Miyake component entirely: it carried 'inhibition' and 'shifting' and not 'updating'. the project, 2026-08-26.— “Executive functions, the skills used to guide and control thought and action, are typically divided into three main components following Miyake et al. (2000). These are (i) updating or working memory, the ability to monitor and manipulate information held in mind, (ii) inhibition, the suppression of irrelevant information and inappropriate… | unhoused_relations[0] |
| limitation | Because age-appropriate mathematics content was chosen separately for each group, the study may have measured only the application of already-mastered material, which could explain the absence of age-related change.— “By selecting separate age-appropriate content for the mathematics measures for each group it is possible that we were in fact assessing the role of executive functions in performing and applying already mastered mathematical skills and knowledge in all age groups, and that the role of executive functions in doing this is the same at all… | limitations[0] |
| limitation | The direct working-memory-to-achievement pathway has not been shown to survive control for working memory's role in performing the arithmetic operation itself.— “It remains to be established whether this relationship holds once the role of working memory in performing the appropriate arithmetic operation is taken into account.” | limitations[1] |
| limitation | IQ was not included, so its share of the variance in each mathematics component is unknown.— “Similarly, the role of IQ in explaining variance in each mathematics components has yet to be fully explored.” | limitations[2] |
| limitation | The field's existing evidence cannot be put side by side, because it comes from separate studies — which is the stated reason this study exists.— “However much of this evidence is drawn across separate studies and thus it is not possible to directly compare the contribution of executive functions across these three core competencies of arithmetic.” | limitations[3] |
| limitation | The three-part division of the central construct is inherited from one paper rather than derived here.— “are typically divided into three main components following Miyake et al. (2000).” | limitations[4] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | The domain-specific skills of factual knowledge, procedural skill and conceptual understanding only partially mediated the executive-function/achievement link, with numerical inhibitory control acting on achievement through factual knowledge and procedural skill.— “Domain-specific skills partially mediated the relationship between executive functions and mathematics achievement: Inhibitory control within the numerical domain was associated with factual knowledge and procedural skill, which in turn was associated with mathematical achievement.” | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | Executive function measures explained far more variance in overall mathematics achievement (34%) than in any single component skill, and least of all in conceptual understanding (5%).— “As shown in Table 3 the executive function measures alone explained 34% of the variance in mathematical achievement, 12% of the variance in factual knowledge, 15% of the variance in procedural skill and 5% of the variance in conceptual understanding.” | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | Verbal working memory uniquely predicted all four outcomes - factual knowledge, procedural skill, conceptual understanding and mathematics achievement.— “Verbal working memory was a unique independent predictor of factual knowledge, procedural skill and conceptual understanding as well as mathematics achievement.” | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | Shifting and non-numerical inhibition independently predicted none of the outcomes, whereas numerical inhibition uniquely predicted factual knowledge and procedural skill.— “Shifting and non-numerical inhibition did not independently predict any of the outcome variables, while numerical inhibition was a unique independent predictor of factual knowledge and procedural skill.” | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | Contrary to prediction, the relationships between executive functions and mathematics were the same from 8 years to adulthood.— “Contrary to our predictions we found that the relationships between executive functions and all components of mathematics were the same from 8 years of age through to adulthood.” | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | Visuospatial working memory had a substantial direct effect on mathematics achievement (b = 0.25).— “There was also a substantial direct effect of visuospatial working memory on mathematics achievement (b = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.15–0.34).” | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | Verbal working memory influenced achievement indirectly through all three component skills, with the procedural-skill route the largest of the three indirect paths.— “There were small but significant indirect effects of verbal working memory on mathematics achievement through all three component arithmetic skills; factual knowledge (b = 0.020, 95% CI: 0.005–0.051), procedural skill (b = 0.045, 95% CI: 0.014–0.089) and conceptual understanding (b = 0.015, 95% CI: 0.002–0.041).” | content_tags.findings[6] |
| finding | The predicted relationship of inhibition and shifting with overall mathematics achievement was not found.— “The predicted relationship between inhibition and shifting and overall mathematics achievement was not found” | content_tags.findings[7] |
| quantity | 293 — total participants tested, aged 8-25 years— “Two hundred and ninety-three participants aged between 8 and 25 years completed a large battery of mathematics and executive function tests.” | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | 34% — variance in mathematics achievement explained by the executive function measures alone | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | b = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.15–0.34 — direct effect of visuospatial working memory on mathematics achievement after the mediators were included | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | 9% — unique variance in mathematics achievement attributable to the working memory tasks once storage and processing speed were controlled | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | 0.3% — proportion of missing data replaced by multiple imputation | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| variable | mathematics achievement (dependent) | content_tags.variables[0] |
| variable | factual knowledge, procedural skill and conceptual understanding (mediator) | content_tags.variables[1] |
| variable | executive function measures (covariate) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[2] |
| variable | verbal working memory (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[3] |
| variable | age contrasts (moderator) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[4] |
| variable | total number of words correctly recalled (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[5] |
| definition | executive functions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | factual knowledge Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[2] |
| definition | working memory Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| definition | inhibition Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[4] |
| definition | shifting Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[5] |
| concept | executive functions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[0] |
| concept | inhibition Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[1] |
| concept | shifting Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[2] |
| concept | updating — not defined in this paper's own words; the first Miyake component - the ability to monitor and manipulate information held in mind; the record already carried 'inhibition' and 'shifting' and was missing this one Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[3] |
| concept | working memory — not defined in this paper's own words; offered by the paper as an alternative name for 'updating' in the same breath, though the wider literature treats the two as related rather than identical Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[4] |
| hierarchical regression R2 | as written: hierarchical linear regression Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[0] |
| bootstrap CI | as written: bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using bootstrapping with 10,000 resamples Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[1] |
| variance partitioning | as written: partition the variance Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[2] |
| Mahalanobis distance (outlier detection) | as written: multivariate outliers using Mahalanobis distance Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[3] |
| multiple imputation | as written: multiple imputation option in SPSS Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[4] |
| standardization (z-scores) z | as written: transformed raw scores on all measures to z-scores Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[5] |
| descriptive statistics | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[6] |
| mediation analysis b | as written: indirect effects Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[7] |
When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
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