phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | dopamine reward-prediction-error signalling during classical conditioning— “Behavioral conditioning of cue-reward pairing results in a shift of midbrain dopamine (DA) cell activity from responding to the reward to responding to the predictive cue.” | |
| claim-type | mechanism— “By exploring the TD parameter space, we demonstrate that the persistent reward responses of DA cells during conditioning are only accurately replicated by a TD model with long-lasting eligibility traces (nonzero values for the parameter λ) and low learning rate (α).” | |
| method — evidence | — “Here, we report a combined single-unit recording and temporal difference (TD) modeling approach to this question.” | |
| object of study — evidence | — “Behavioral conditioning of cue-reward pairing results in a shift of midbrain dopamine (DA) cell activity from responding to the reward to responding to the predictive cue. However, the precise time course and mechanism underlying this shift remain unclear.” | |
| research question — evidence | — “In this study, we first investigated in conscious rats whether DA cells conform to these specific patterns of prediction error signaling by recording from single neurons while animals first learned the association between cues and rewards. The results were not consistent with previous model predictions. We then performed a systematic… | |
| contribution — evidence | — “By exploring the TD parameter space, we demonstrate that the persistent reward responses of DA cells during conditioning are only accurately replicated by a TD model with long-lasting eligibility traces (nonzero values for the parameter λ) and low learning rate (α).” | |
| transfer | from machine learning / computer science: The temporal difference algorithm and its prediction-error signal, taken from machine learning, are used as the model of midbrain dopamine cell activity.— “Furthermore, several features of DA cell activity match properties of the prediction error signal of the temporal difference (TD) algorithm for machine learning, leading to the hypothesis that DA cell activity may be providing a teaching signal within a neural analog of a TD learning system in the brain” | transfers[0] |
| transfer | from machine learning: the temporal difference algorithm, imported as a candidate account of what dopamine cells compute— “In the temporal difference algorithm, an estimate of the expected reward at a particular time step t is derived from the difference between the prediction of all future rewards at that time step, P ( t ), and the prediction of all future rewards that was generated at the previous time step, P ( t - 1) ( Sutton, 1988 ). The difference between… | transfers[1] |
| transfer | from classical conditioning theory: the century-old requirement that some trace of the cue survive until the reward arrives, here identified with the eligibility trace— “The concept that for delayed associative conditioning to occur there must be some memory or trace of the antecedent signal at the time of a subsequent reward is as old as the study of classical conditioning itself” | transfers[2] |
| transfer | from reinforcement learning practice: the known trade-off that high lambda with low alpha buys stable early learning, used here as an adaptive argument— “A low learning rate may be considered a disadvantage. However, previous studies in machine learning have found that when λ is set high to enable learning to begin early in training, low values of α improve the stability of learning” | transfers[3] |
| mechanism | A long-lasting eligibility trace keeps the weights of an earlier sensory signal open to modification for many time steps, so the reward-driven prediction error can be assigned back to the cue in one step instead of migrating one time step per trial— “In TD(λ), vector weights representing a sensory signal remain eligible for modification by prediction error signals for a variable number of time steps after the signal has occurred.” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | A very low learning rate combined with a high eligibility-trace decay makes each trial change the weights only slightly, so responses to the cue and to the predicted reward coexist for a prolonged period before the reward response is suppressed— “Thus, very low α in combination with high λ generates a prolonged period over which both cue and reward responses occur, as seen in the DA cell data.” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | Sustained firing in reverberating circuits, or biochemical processes at the synapse, could hold the seconds-long eligibility trace the model requires— “Potential mechanisms include sustained firing in reverberating circuits and biochemical mechanisms acting at the synaptic level ( Houk et al., 1995 ).” | mechanisms[2] |
| mechanism | an eligibility trace keeps earlier time steps modifiable, so a cue several steps back can be updated in one trial instead of waiting for the error to migrate— “The eligibility trace enables weights associated with previous time steps to be altered by prediction error at time step t and was calculated recursively ( Sutton, 1988 ) by the following: e l ( t + 1) = λ e l ( t ) + x l ( t ) , where λ is the eligibility trace decay parameter.” | mechanisms[3] |
| mechanism | with a low learning rate each trial moves the weights only slightly, which is what lets cue and reward responses coexist for hundreds of trials— “Otherwise, the value for α, given a suitable setting for λ, determined the number of trials needed for growth of the cue response and for abolition of the reward response and therefore the number of trials over which these responses coexisted.” | mechanisms[4] |
| mechanism | under TD(0) the error must arrive one step earlier per trial, so reaching a cue k steps back takes at least k trials— “A physiological interpretation of TD(0) is that the system can only hold a memory of an event from one moment to the next. Our findings suggest that this limitation cannot apply to learning in the brain reward pathways.” | mechanisms[5] |
| mechanism | candidate substrates for a seconds-long trace are reverberating circuits and synaptic biochemistry— “The existence of eligibility traces lasting several seconds in neural circuits is open to experimental verification. Potential mechanisms include sustained firing in reverberating circuits and biochemical mechanisms acting at the synaptic level” | mechanisms[6] |
| mechanism | long traces with slow learning is the combination machine learning already found to give early but stable learning, which may be why biology uses it— “Thus, combining prolonged eligibility for change with low rates for learning rate offers considerable practical advantages that may… | mechanisms[7] |
| builds-on | Montague et al. (1996) temporal-difference model of dopamine activity | claim_relations[0] |
| contradicts | previous TD models predicting a gradual stepwise latency shift (Montague et al., 1996; Schultz et al., 1997) | claim_relations[1] |
| extends | Miller et al., 1981; Kosobud et al., 1994; Kiyatkin and Rebec, 2001; Hyland et al., 2002 (rat DA cell responses to reward-predicting cues) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[2] |
| contradicts | the stepwise latency migration predicted by TD(0) models of dopamine activity Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[3] |
| contradicts | the prediction that a redundant intermediate cue draws no response Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[4] |
| contradicts | the prediction that reward responses vanish before cue responses appear Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[5] |
| reconciles | the temporal difference framework with the recorded time course, by relocating the disagreement to parameter choice Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[6] |
| critiques | published primate datasets, which on re-inspection never supported gradual migration either Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[7] |
| confirms | earlier reports that reward responses are diminished in highly trained animals Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[8] |
| extends | rat studies showing dopamine responses to reward-predicting cues, by showing they arise during acquisition Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[9] |
| sense | presumed DA cells are a doubly filtered category: rate below 10 Hz and spike at least 1 ms, THEN more than 50% inhibition by a dopamine agonist. Cell identity is pharmacological here, not genetic or anatomical Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[0] |
| sense | TD(0), TD(1) and TD(lambda) are three different models, not one - the value of lambda changes which weights an error can touch, and the published DA models were TD(0) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[1] |
| sense | prediction error here is the scalar difference between actual reward and the temporal difference of successive predictions, with the NEGATIVE side deliberately clipped to match dopamine cells' floor Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[2] |
| sense | early and late training are defined by block count - 6 or fewer against 10 or more - and the paper's central result holds only early Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[3] |
| sense | the recorded population pools substantia nigra pars compacta, ventral tegmental area and supramammillary nucleus, justified by a null on regional differences Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[4] |
| control | electrode track positions confirmed histologically after the experiments were completed — held — rules out attributing the responses to dopamine cells that were not where the recordings were thought to be - the confirmation comes after, from the tissue, not from the coordinates Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[0] |
| differs in | previous TD models predicting a gradual stepwise latency shift (Montague et al., 1996; Schultz et al., 1997) — the time course of the latency shift: previous TD models PREDICT A GRADUAL STEPWISE SHIFT IN LATENCY WITH RESPONSES TO REWARDS LOST BEFORE RESPONSES DEVELOP TO THE CONDITIONED CUE Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[1] |
| differs in | the stepwise latency migration predicted by TD(0) models of dopamine activity — the latency profile of the new response: NEW CONDITIONED RESPONSES MADE THEIR FIRST APPEARANCE AT A CONSTANT, SHORT LATENCY AFTER PREDICTIVE CUES, and DEVELOPED RAPIDLY, WITHIN A FEW TRIALS - not the gradual migration the models expect Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[3] |
| differs in | the temporal difference framework with the recorded time course, by relocating the disagreement to parameter choice — the model's free parameters: THESE APPARENT DISPARITIES BETWEEN TD MODEL PREDICTION ERRORS AND DA CELL ACTIVITY ARE ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE PARTICULAR CHOICE OF PARAMETERS USED IN THE MODEL - the settings for ALPHA and LAMBDA, not the framework Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[6] |
| differs in | published primate datasets, which on re-inspection never supported gradual migration either — gradual migration against simultaneous responding, and the stage of learning: the existing primate data PROVIDES NO SUPPORT FOR THE GRADUAL MIGRATION OF A RESPONSE DURING LEARNING AND SUGGESTS THAT DA CELLS SHOW SIMULTANEOUS RESPONDING TO BOTH CUE AND REWARD, AT LEAST EARLY IN LEARNING Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[7] |
| audit | prediction error —operationalised-as→ DA cells — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span says DA cells' baseline spiking can be equated to zero prediction error; operationalised-as is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[0] |
| note | prediction error —operationalised-as→ DA cells — the identification is asymmetric by construction: firing can rise to 100 Hz but only fall to zero from a 5 Hz baseline Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[0] |
| audit | TD(0) —is-a→ temporal difference — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span writes 'TD(0) model'; 'temporal difference' is an abbreviation variant. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[2] |
| audit | TD(1) —is-a→ temporal difference — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span writes 'TD(1) model'; 'temporal difference' is an abbreviation variant. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[3] |
| audit | apomorphine —operationalised-as→ DA cells — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but apomorphine inhibition was an inclusion criterion for DA cells; operationalised-as is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[5] |
| note | apomorphine —operationalised-as→ DA cells — direction is test-to-category: more than 50% inhibition by the agonist is what makes a recorded cell count as dopaminergic Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[5] |
| edge | serial compound —operationalised-as→ state vector Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[8] |
| audit | omission —operationalised-as→ prediction error — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its span and kept, but responses to cue omission were analysed; operationalised-as 'prediction error' is interpretive. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[9] |
| note | omission —operationalised-as→ prediction error — the negative side of the signal is measured by withholding what was predicted Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[9] |
| weight | omission —operationalised-as→ prediction error — 0.8 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[9] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — held | controls[0] |
| for which use | limitation — the fitted parameter values: OUR RESULTS SHOULD NOT BE UNDERSTOOD AS PROVIDING EXPLICIT FIXED VALUES FOR NEURAL TD LEARNING PARAMETERS, BECAUSE THE SPECIFIC VALUES ... MAY BE DIFFERENT IF DETAILS OF THE MODEL STRUCTURE WERE CHANGED Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| for which use | limitation — the timing predictions in particular: IT IS NOT KNOWN HOW SENSORY STIMULI ARE REPRESENTED IN THE BRAIN FOR REWARD LEARNING Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[0] - the values are a property of this model structure Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[1], with the convention named: WE FOLLOWED MANY PREVIOUS STUDIES IN USING A SERIAL COMPOUND REPRESENTATION OF CONDITIONED STIMULI Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| for which use | limitation — any reading of the click as a neutral cue: ANIMALS WERE THEREFORE EXPOSED TO HUNDREDS OF SOLENOID-REWARD PAIRINGS BY THE TIME THE RECORDINGS WERE MADE Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| for which use | limitation — the negative prediction-error signal: THE AMPLITUDE OF INHIBITIONS WAS SMALL, CONSISTENT WITH THE FACT THAT INHIBITORY RESPONSES CAN BE DIFFICULT TO DETECT AND QUANTIFY IN NEURONS THAT ALREADY HAVE A LOW BASELINE RATE Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| for which use | limitation — what a 'dopamine neuron' means here, and in every study that skips the drug test: FROM 45 NEURONS THAT WERE POSSIBLY DOPAMINERGIC ON ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL CRITERIA, 24 ... WERE CONFIRMED DA NEURONS BASED ON HAVING A CLEAR INHIBITORY RESPONSE TO DOPAMINE AGONIST DRUGS Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| replication | untested | |
| limitation | The fitted parameter values are not claimed to be fixed neural constants, since a different model structure could yield different best-fitting values. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| limitation | The stimulus representation assumed by the model (serial compound) is not known to be how the brain represents stimuli for reward learning. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| limitation | the paper refuses the strong reading of its own result: these are not fixed values for neural parameters, because a different model structure would shift them Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| limitation | how the brain represents stimuli in time is unknown; the serial compound representation is a convention inherited from earlier models Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| limitation | the animals had already had hundreds of solenoid-reward pairings before recording, so the click was not a neutral event at the start of conditioning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| limitation | the negative prediction error signal is small and hard to measure against an already low baseline rate Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| limitation | 21 of 45 electrophysiologically plausible cells failed the pharmacological test and were discarded Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | Dopamine cells kept responding to reward long after they developed responses to the predictive cue. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | New conditioned responses appeared straight away at their final short latency after the cue, with no gradual backward drift of latency from reward to cue. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | Every cell trained with two cues in sequence responded clearly to the second, seemingly redundant cue, and that response persisted for the whole experiment. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | Cells recorded after many sessions of cue-reward pairing no longer responded to a predictable reward, unlike the cells recorded early in training. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | Acquiring a cue response and losing the reward response run on different time courses rather than being two sides of one shift. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | Omitting an expected reward significantly reduced firing rate. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | Omitting the second cue restored reward responses to the level seen with random reward. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[6] |
| finding | With the chosen parameter values, the TD model's prediction error reproduced key elements of the recorded dopamine pattern. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[7] |
| finding | A high eligibility-trace decay parameter was the one setting that let the model learn cue significance without stepwise trial-by-trial migration of the response from reward to cue. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[8] |
| finding | Once the eligibility-trace decay fell below about 0.6, stepwise migration of the prediction error reappeared no matter what learning rate was used. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[9] |
| finding | conditioned responses appeared at their final short latency within a few trials, with no gradual migration Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[10] |
| finding | the redundant intermediate cue drew a clear response in every two-cue cell, which persisted Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[11] |
| finding | responses to predicted reward persisted after cue responses had developed, in every cell recorded early in training Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[12] |
| finding | responses to predicted reward are lost completely only after training beyond what first establishes cue responses, so the two changes have different time courses Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[13] |
| finding | those late-training cells still responded robustly to reward delivered without cues Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[14] |
| finding | omitting the second cue restored the reward response to its uncued level, so the redundant cue was doing predictive work Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[15] |
| finding | TD with eligibility zero and a fast learning rate reproduced the published pattern, with no second-cue response and no overlap Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[16] |
| finding | TD with lambda 0.9 and alpha 0.005 reproduced the recorded pattern, including the coexistence and the intermediate cue response Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[17] |
| finding | lambda below about 0.6 brought stepwise migration back for every value of alpha, making it the critical parameter Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[18] |
| finding | omitted rewards produced a significant firing decrease but omitted cues did not Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[19] |
| finding | CONTROL NULL: no regional difference in response pattern, which is what licensed pooling the three midbrain sites Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[20] |
| finding | BUILT IN, NOT PREDICTED: the model's small negative errors follow from the clipping imposed to match dopamine cells' floor, as the authors state Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[21] |
| finding | re-inspection of published primate datasets found no support for gradual migration there either Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[22] |
| quantity | 24 of 45, from 11 rats — cells that passed pharmacological confirmation as dopamine neurons out of those meeting the electrophysiological criteria Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | 5.7 ± 3.5 Hz — average baseline firing rate of the confirmed dopamine cells Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | 8 of 11 — cells tested in which conditioned responses to the cue developed during recording Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | 74 ± 33 ms; 53 ± 9 ms — latencies of the newly conditioned excitatory and inhibitory responses to the cue Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | -0.12 ± 0.17 — average modulation index at the time of an omitted second cue, a nonsignificant departure from baseline Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| quantity | -0.21 ± 0.20; p < 0.01; n = 11 — average modulation index when an expected reward was omitted, a significant reduction from baseline Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[5] |
| quantity | ∼0.6 — threshold value of the eligibility-trace decay parameter below which stepwise migration of the prediction error reappears Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[6] |
| quantity | -0.05 — ceiling imposed on the model's negative prediction error, to match the limited range over which dopamine cells can be inhibited Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[7] |
| quantity | 0.9 and 0.005 — the lambda and alpha that reproduced the recorded dopamine pattern Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[8] |
| quantity | about 0.6 — the lambda threshold below which stepwise migration reappears for every alpha Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[9] |
| quantity | -0.05 — the imposed floor on negative prediction error, matching dopamine cells' limited inhibitory range Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[10] |
| quantity | 24 of 45 — electrophysiologically plausible cells that passed the pharmacological identification Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[11] |
| quantity | 5.7 Hz, 1.5 ms — mean firing rate and spike duration of the accepted dopamine cells Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[12] |
| quantity | -0.21 vs -0.12 — modulation index for omitted reward (significant) against omitted cue (not) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[13] |
| quantity | 74 ms and 53 ms — latency of the new conditioned excitations and inhibitions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[14] |
| variable | oddball sequences (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[1] |
| variable | decay parameter (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[2] |
| variable | firing rate (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[4] |
| variable | discount factor (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[5] |
| variable | intertrial interval (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[6] |
| variable | control paradigms (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[7] |
| variable | learning rate Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[9] |
| variable | eligibility trace Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[10] |
| variable | latency Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[11] |
| variable | omission Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[12] |
| definition | eligibility trace Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | temporal difference Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | learning rate parameter Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| definition | complete serial compound stimulus Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[6] |
| definition | temporal difference Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[7] |
| definition | prediction error Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[8] |
| definition | eligibility trace Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[9] |
| definition | serial compound Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[10] |
| definition | modulation index Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[11] |
| definition | TD(0) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[12] |
| definition | TD(1) model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[13] |
| definition | TD(0) model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[14] |
| key-terms | DA cells, prediction error, temporal difference, eligibility trace, learning rate, TD(0), serial compound, omission, conditioned, apomorphine, ventral tegmental area, modulation index |
| t-test p | as written: paired t test Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[0] |
| standard deviation SD | as written: (mean ± SD) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[1] |
| standard error of the mean SEM | as written: Error bars represent SEM. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[2] |
| standard deviation threshold criterion SDs | as written: ≥2 SDs of the mean baseline firing rate Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[3] |
| histogram | as written: averaged peri-event time histograms Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[4] |
| paired t test | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[5] |
| modulation index | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[6] |
| SD | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[7] |
| claim type | mechanism — a second reading reaching the same value; recorded: mechanism Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.claim_type |
| method | extracellular single-unit recording from pharmacologically identified midbrain dopamine cells during first acquisition, paired with a systematic sweep of the TD algorithm's parameter space — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: electrophysiology Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.method |
| phenomenon | the shift of dopamine cell firing from unexpected reward to the cue that predicts it — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: dopamine reward-prediction-error signalling during classical conditioning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.phenomenon |
When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
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