(cid:NN). The PDF this text was extracted from encodes 7 characters in a way that names no letter, so the extractor could not say what they were. The quotes keep them because a quote is reproduced exactly or it proves nothing — the marks are the source’s, not the tagging’s.phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | visual working memory in primary visual cortex— “We trained monkeys (Macaca mulatta) to perform a delayed-response task in which the animals had to remember briefly the location of a figure after it had been removed from the visual scene (1).” | |
| claim-type | existence— “Here, we identify a neural correlate of working memory in the monkey primary visual cortex ( V1).” | |
| method — evidence | — “During the delayed-response task, multiunit activity of V1 neurons was recorded in two monkeys (2).” | |
| mechanism | Figure-ground contextual modulation in V1, generated by recurrent feedback, is carried on past stimulus offset and thereby converts the sensory representation into a working-memory trace.— “We therefore propose that contextual modulation in the primary visual cortex is a correlate of the process that forms a bridge between sensory activity and working memory.” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | Two processes act on V1 during the delay in opposite directions: one suppresses overall firing while a second preserves the figure-versus-ground difference.— “Thus, whereas one mechanism suppresses overall activity in V1 during the delay, another mechanism seems to be able to maintain the difference in figure versus ground signals.” | mechanisms[1] |
| explains-away | fMRI studies finding little delay activation in early visual areas (ref. 15)— “Thus, whereas one mechanism suppresses overall activity in V1 during the delay, another mechanism seems to be able to maintain the difference in figure versus ground signals. In that sense, the maintained activity is different from delay-period activity recorded in temporal (13) or prefrontal (14) cortex. This difference may also explain why… | claim_relations[0] |
| distinguishes-from | delay-period activity in temporal (ref. 13) and prefrontal (ref. 14) cortex— “Thus, whereas one mechanism suppresses overall activity in V1 during the delay, another mechanism seems to be able to maintain the difference in figure versus ground signals. In that sense, the maintained activity is different from delay-period activity recorded in temporal (13) or prefrontal (14) cortex. This difference may also explain why… | claim_relations[1] |
| builds-on | the criterion that stored information is held only if needed (ref. 11)— “The remaining amount of modulation is much stronger when the figure is relevant to the memory task than when it is not (P , 0.0005). These results indicate that the continuation of modulation is not a passive process but is related to an active storage of information needed for the animal’s goal” | claim_relations[2] |
| sense | contextual modulation - AS A CORRELATE OF RECURRENT PROCESSING: a V1 signal whose source is feedback from higher visual areas, so it indexes a loop rather than the area it is recorded in— “Contextual modulation in V1 depends on feedback from higher visual areas (7–9), which implies that it is a specific correlate of recurrent processing” | senses[0] |
| sense | the memory signal - DEFINED BY THE ANIMAL'S REPORT: trials are sorted after the fact into correct and incorrect by whether the saccade landed on the remembered location within 500 ms, and the neural difference is computed between those two sets | senses[1] |
| sense | the figure-ground difference - NOT STIMULUS-DRIVEN BY CONSTRUCTION: the motion on the receptive field was arranged to be identical on average for figure and ground, so the difference cannot be attributed to the local stimulus Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | senses[2] |
| control | the whole delayed-response experiment repeated with a STATIC orientation-defined figure in place of the moving one, followed by a mask — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. — rules out any peculiarity of the MOVING stimulus as the source of the sustained contextual modulation - motion has its own persistence, so a modulation that outlasts a moving figure could be an aftereffect of the motion rather than a memory trace Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[0] |
| differs in | fMRI studies finding little delay activation in early visual areas (ref. 15) — WHETHER THE MEASURE CAN SEE THE SIGNAL. Two mechanisms run in opposite directions: 'one mechanism suppresses overall activity in V1 during the delay, another mechanism seems to be able to maintain the difference in figure versus ground signals.' A method reading overall activity therefore records a decrease while the memory signal - a DIFFERENCE between two conditions - is maintained. The paper offers this as why 'very little delay activation is found in early visual areas' in imaging Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[0] |
| differs in | delay-period activity in temporal (ref. 13) and prefrontal (ref. 14) cortex — WHAT IS MAINTAINED DURING THE DELAY. Elsewhere it is the firing rate; here the rate falls and what persists is a CONTRAST between figure and ground - 'In that sense, THE MAINTAINED ACTIVITY IS DIFFERENT FROM DELAY-PERIOD ACTIVITY RECORDED IN TEMPORAL OR PREFRONTAL CORTEX.' Two things called delay activity that a rate measure would score in opposite directions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[1] |
| differs in | the criterion that stored information is held only if needed (ref. 11) — WHETHER PERSISTENCE ALONE DEMONSTRATES STORAGE. The distractor condition supplies the missing half: modulation persists when the figure is the target and decays when the same figure is the distractor, so 'the continuation of modulation is NOT A passive process but is related to an active storage of information needed for the animal's goal'. The same stimulus with the same retinal input yields opposite signals according to task relevance Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | claim_relations[2] |
| audit | recurrent processing —causes→ contextual modulation — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span says contextual modulation depends on feedback, which IMPLIES it correlates with recurrent processing; causes is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[0] |
| audit | working memory —operationalised-as→ delayed-response task — Audit 2026-09-28: DOUBTFUL - read against its full span and kept, but the span describes the delayed-response task used for the working memory of the previous sentence; operationalised-as is loose. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concept_edges[1] |
| outcome | control — held Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | controls[0] |
| for which use | limitation — this result as a finding about primary visual cortex: the modulation depends on feedback from higher visual areas, which the authors say makes it a specific correlate of recurrent processing rather than of local V1 computation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| for which use | limitation — an early V1 figure-ground measurement as an index of what will be remembered: segregation is equally good on correct and incorrect trials, and the two only diverge later in the delay Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| for which use | limitation — a modulation strength quoted from this paper: it is related to the delay period and becomes weaker for longer delays, so the figure is only comparable at a matched delay Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| replication | untested | |
| limitation | The signal recorded in V1 is stated to depend on feedback from higher areas, so the site of the recording is not the site of the process. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| limitation | The early figure-ground signal is the same whether the animal later remembers or forgets; only the late persistence separates them. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| limitation | The memory signal decays with the length of the delay, so its strength depends on how long the animal is asked to wait. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | After the figure was removed from the screen, V1 responses to the figure stayed stronger than responses to the ground throughout the delay, so figure-ground contextual modulation continues in the absence of the stimulus. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | The strength of the maintained figure-ground modulation shrinks as the required memory delay gets longer. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | On correct and incorrect trials alike, the figure was equally well segregated from the ground in the first 250 ms. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | In the late part of the delay, contextual modulation vanished entirely on trials where the monkey later made the wrong saccade, while it continued on trials answered correctly. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | The continuation of modulation is not passive but reflects active storage of information the animal needs for its goal. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | During the delay V1 shows two dissociable effects at once: overall firing is suppressed while the figure-versus-ground difference is preserved. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | The maintained activity is highly unlikely to be a neural correlate of visual persistence. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[6] |
| finding | The monkeys detected the figure well overall but their performance dropped as the delay lengthened, confirming the task taxes short-term memory. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[7] |
| finding | The same phenomenon appeared in a control experiment using a static rather than a moving stimulus. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[8] |
| quantity | 28 ms — how long the motion-defined figure was shown before it had to be remembered Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | 0 and 2000 ms — range over which the memory delay (cue-time latency) was varied Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | P , 1027 — significance of the decline in modulation strength across the delay for the 1000 and 2000 ms delays Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | P , 0.0005 — significance of the difference in remaining modulation between figure-as-target and figure-as-distractor Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | 900 ms — length of the memory period over which modulation persisted in the static-texture control experiment Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| quantity | P , 1025 — significance of the correct-versus-incorrect difference in modulation in the final 250 ms before cue time (initial 250 ms did not differ, P . 0.1) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[5] |
| quantity | two monkeys — number of animals from which V1 multiunit activity was recorded Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[6] |
| variable | latency of the cue time (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[0] |
| variable | strength of contextual modulation (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[2] |
| variable | directions of motion (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[4] |
| definition | contextual modulation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | visual persistence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | relative degree of modulation persistence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[2] |
| definition | correct trial Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| concept | contextual modulation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[0] |
| concept | recurrent processing Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[1] |
| concept | working memory Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[2] |
| concept | delayed-response task Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[3] |
| concept | receptive fields Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[4] |
| p-value P | as written: P , 1024 for all delay periods Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[0] |
| regression | as written: fitted a linear regression line Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[1] |
| standard error of the mean SEM | as written: SEM Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[2] |
| evidence status note | standard error of the mean — DAMAGED GLYPHS IN THIS QUOTE: (cid:222). These are raw PDF font glyph indices that leaked out in place of the characters they stand for - usually a mathematical operator. The quote is verbatim to the staged text and its anchor is sound; the STAGED TEXT is what is damaged. NOT repaired: the cid-to-character mapping is defined by the font embedded in that particular PDF, so guessing it would produce a clean and unverifiable quote. Repair needs the source PDF and is a re-staging job. | content_tags.statistics[2] |
| mean | as written: Population average of modulation ratios Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[3] |
| evidence status note | mean — DAMAGED GLYPHS IN THIS QUOTE: (cid:222). These are raw PDF font glyph indices that leaked out in place of the characters they stand for - usually a mathematical operator. The quote is verbatim to the staged text and its anchor is sound; the STAGED TEXT is what is damaged. NOT repaired: the cid-to-character mapping is defined by the font embedded in that particular PDF, so guessing it would produce a clean and unverifiable quote. Repair needs the source PDF and is a re-staging job. | content_tags.statistics[3] |
When we have changed our mind. Some entries in the table begin with a word in capitals and the reason for it. EVIDENCE CORRECTED — the finding still stands, but we had quoted the wrong sentence from the paper, and the quotation has been replaced with the right one. RETRACTED — the entry itself was wrong; it stays on the page, marked, with the reason, rather than being deleted. WITHDRAWN AND REPLACED — the entry was wrong, and a corrected version of it appears in the entries below. Each mark carries its own reason, in brackets, because the reasons differ from one entry to the next. An entry we have WITHDRAWN is removed from this page and kept in the record, with its reason. A line reading Audit and a date is a later re-reading of the entry against its whole sentence: DOUBTFUL means it was kept, and the reason says what is loose about it. Quotation marks inside the tagger's sentence. Where a tag is the tagger's own sentence, a phrase in quotation marks inside it is borrowed from the paper — the tagger's wording around it is not. The paper's own sentence is the evidence quote for that row; on this page it is withheld with the article, and the article is at its publisher. Nothing inside quotation marks anywhere on this page is ours: if it is quoted, it is the paper's. Whose words a concept carries. A concept entry records a term the paper itself uses, so the term, the sense given for it, and its evidence are the paper's own words, quoted where the paper fixes them. This is the opposite of a sense entry in the tag table, which is the tagger's sentence about how the paper uses a term. Where a concept entry could not be grounded in the paper's words, the entry says so on its own row.
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