phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | development of statistical learning— “Discovering whether and how statistical learning changes with development is likely to inform long-standing questions about why children excel relative to adults in some areas, such as learning language16 and solving problems that require unconventional solutions17,18.” | |
| claim-type | prediction— “Reviewing related behavioural and neural evidence, we posited that infants and young children might have broader and less-filtered access to the statistical structure present in their learning environments and that what they represent after statistical learning might shift with age.” | |
| method — evidence | — “In this Review, we first synthesize empirical work on the development of statistical learning, which indicates that it improves with development only for certain forms of input.” | |
| mechanism | faster forgetting in infancy strips away the idiosyncratic details of individual experiences, so what accumulates is a general, fuzzy representation of the commonalities— “Thus, faster forgetting — and greater forgetting between experiences — can produce fuzzy, general representations (Fig. 5).” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | immature selective attention leaves children unable to filter their input, which widens the pool of structure available for statistical learning— “Because children cannot use attention to filter their experience as well as adults, they can potentially learn more about the parts of experience that adults exclude for being outside their narrower focus of attention.” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | attention gates statistical learning in adults, so a narrower adult attentional focus means less input is eligible to be learned at any moment— “Attention can gate10,81 statistical learning in adults such that unattended aspects of an environment are not always learned.” | mechanisms[2] |
| mechanism | children's distributed attention makes them sample many structures at once, trading speed of learning any single structure for knowledge of relationships between structures— “In a complex environment with multiple structures, infants and children might therefore spend more time learning from multiple sources at once, slowing their learning of any given structure, but also potentially bolstering their knowledge of possible relationships among different sources of structure.” | mechanisms[3] |
| mechanism | the early-maturing monosynaptic hippocampal pathway extracts regularities across many similar experiences and therefore yields fuzzy rather than specific representations— “The early-developing monosynaptic pathway is thought to learn regularities from many similar experiences, yielding fuzzy representations in humans and monkeys alike78.” | mechanisms[4] |
| mechanism | prior knowledge blocks learning of conflicting structure, so accumulated experience narrows what a learner can pick up— “In adults, knowledge seems to impact statistical learning: adults fail to learn structures that conflict with their previous knowledge.” | mechanisms[5] |
| builds-on | previous work arguing that children's advantage in language learning stems from their ongoing cognitive development (refs 16, 171, 172)— “Regarding language, we join previous work that suggests that children’s prowess in language learning has to do with their ongoing cognitive development16,171,172.” | claim_relations[0] |
| contradicts | definitions treating statistical learning as a singular, inherently implicit learning system (ref 185)— “Although some definitions conceptualize statistical learning as a singular and inherently implicit learning system185, we favour the conceptualization of statistical learning as supported by a set of learning processes, some of which can result in conscious access to learning20,21,34.” | claim_relations[1] |
| sense | statistical learning - STIPULATED IN A BOX, WITH AN ADDED REQUIREMENT: defined as the learning of structure from repeated exposure to environmental statistics, with the further requirement that learning occur without reinforcement or external feedback - so the absence of feedback is part of the definition rather than a feature of the phenomenon— “Similar to others19, we further require that learning occurs without reinforcement or external feedback” | senses[0] |
| sense | statistical learning - A SET OF PROCESSES, NOT A SINGLE IMPLICIT SYSTEM: the review names the rival conceptualization - a singular and inherently implicit learning system - and takes the other, under which some of the processes can result in conscious access; whether the term denotes one thing or several decides whether results from different tasks can be pooled— “Although some definitions conceptualize statistical learning as a singular and inherently implicit learning system185, we favour the conceptualization of statistical learning as supported by a set of learning processes” | senses[1] |
| sense | the exclusion of skill learning - A BOUNDARY MADE OF AN ASSAY: motor-based skill learning is put outside the category because it is TYPICALLY ASSESSED in tasks that provide external feedback, so the same phenomenon assessed without feedback would fall inside, and the hedge 'typically' is the authors' own— “We exclude motor-based skill learning (such as serial reaction time tasks) from statistical learning, because it is typically assessed in tasks that provide external feedback” | senses[2] |
| edge | skill learning —distinct-from→ statistical learning— “We exclude motor-based skill learning (such as serial reaction time tasks) from statistical learning, because it is typically assessed in tasks that provide external feedback” | concept_edges[0] |
| edge | serial reaction time tasks —is-a→ skill learning— “We exclude motor-based skill learning (such as serial reaction time tasks) from statistical learning, because it is typically assessed in tasks that provide external feedback” | concept_edges[1] |
| for which use | limitation — the developmental account offered in the discussion: IT IS LARGELY SPECULATIVE AND REMAINS TO BE TESTED— “Although this discussion builds on previous observations about developmental changes in statistical learning, it is largely speculative and remains to be tested.” | limitations[0] |
| for which use | limitation — any claim about shifting neural substrates: A CONFIDENT APPRAISAL OF POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENTAL SHIFTS IN THE NEURAL STRUCTURES THAT ARE INVOLVED IN STATISTICAL LEARNING CANNOT BE MADE FROM JUST TWO STUDIES— “However, a confident appraisal of potential developmental shifts in the neural structures that are involved in statistical learning cannot be made from just two studies that have measured the function of specific brain regions.” | limitations[1] |
| for which use | limitation — the developmental timelines the argument uses: MUCH OF THE DATA ON THESE EXACT TIMELINES COME FROM HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES IN ANIMALS AND BEHAVIOURAL HUMAN MEMORY DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH, SO THESE POSSIBILITIES FOR STATISTICAL LEARNING REQUIRE CONFIRMATION IN HUMAN INFANTS— “Much of the data on these exact timelines come from histological studies in animals and behavioural human memory development research, so these possibilities for statistical learning require confirmation in human infants.” | limitations[2] |
| for which use | limitation — any finding reported in this review: the authors reject the conceptualization of statistical learning as a singular and inherently implicit system in favour of a set of learning processes, some of which can result in conscious access to learning— “Although some definitions conceptualize statistical learning as a singular and inherently implicit learning system185, we favour the conceptualization of statistical learning as supported by a set of learning processes” | limitations[3] |
| for which use | limitation — the scope of statistical learning as used here: motor-based skill learning, such as serial reaction time tasks, is excluded because it is typically assessed in tasks that provide external feedback, so the boundary follows the assessment method rather than the phenomenon— “We exclude motor-based skill learning (such as serial reaction time tasks) from statistical learning, because it is typically assessed in tasks that provide external feedback” | limitations[4] |
| for which use | limitation — any developmental comparison of statistical learning: the authors state it— “However, this availability does not necessarily mean that statistical learning is age-invariant15. Indeed, statistical learning likely changes in quality with age, operating over different sources of data and producing different representations” | limitations[5] |
| replication | untested | |
| limitation | The paper's proposed developmental account is speculative and not yet tested.— “Although this discussion builds on previous observations about developmental changes in statistical learning, it is largely speculative and remains to be tested.” | limitations[0] |
| limitation | The developmental neuroimaging base is too thin to support conclusions about shifting neural substrates.— “However, a confident appraisal of potential developmental shifts in the neural structures that are involved in statistical learning cannot be made from just two studies that have measured the function of specific brain regions.” | limitations[1] |
| limitation | The developmental timelines invoked come from animal histology and general memory research, not from human statistical-learning data.— “Much of the data on these exact timelines come from histological studies in animals and behavioural human memory development research, so these possibilities for statistical learning require confirmation in human infants.” | limitations[2] |
| limitation | The review adopts one of two competing conceptualizations of its subject and says which it rejects.— “Although some definitions conceptualize statistical learning as a singular and inherently implicit learning system185, we favour the conceptualization of statistical learning as supported by a set of learning processes” | limitations[3] |
| limitation | A category boundary is drawn by how the excluded thing is typically assessed.— “We exclude motor-based skill learning (such as serial reaction time tasks) from statistical learning, because it is typically assessed in tasks that provide external feedback” | limitations[4] |
| limitation | The quantity being compared across ages may itself differ by age.— “However, this availability does not necessarily mean that statistical learning is age-invariant15. Indeed, statistical learning likely changes in quality with age, operating over different sources of data and producing different representations” | limitations[5] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | Indirect measures suggest statistical learning changes little or not at all with development.— “Indirect measures suggest that statistical learning changes little or not at all with development.” | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | Direct measures, by contrast, suggest developmental change in statistical learning ability.— “By contrast, direct measures suggest developmental change in statistical learning… | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | In children aged 5 to 12, visual but not aural-syllable statistical learning improved with age. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | The review's central synthesis is that the format of what is learned changes with age, from fuzzy in infancy to specific in early childhood to broad-plus-specific later. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | Sensory cortices and often the basal ganglia are conspicuously missing from the regions underpinning statistical learning in infancy and childhood. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | The developmental neuroimaging evidence base is extremely thin, resting on a single infant functional imaging study. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | The review finds different developmental trajectories: non-linguistic auditory and visual statistical learning improve across childhood while learning of aurally presented syllables does not. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[6] |
| quantity | 0–24 months / 2–7 years / 7–10 years / 18–35 years — the four developmental brackets the review uses to organize the literature Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | one of four — how many developmental statistical learning studies found basal ganglia involvement Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | 18–24 months — estimated age at which the trisynaptic hippocampal pathway supporting specific memories emerges in humans Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | 5–7 vs 8–9 years — the age split at which children move from remembering only specific transitions to remembering both broad groups and specific transitions Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | 8-month-old — age at which infants were shown to represent statistical input as chunks rather than as specific transitional probabilities Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| definition | statistical learning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | fuzzy representations Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | broad representations Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[2] |
| definition | neural entrainment Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| definition | indirect measures of statistical learning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[4] |
| concept | statistical learning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[0] |
| concept | skill learning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[1] |
| concept | serial reaction time tasks Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[2] |
| concept | external feedback Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[3] |
| concept | implicit learning Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[4] |
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