phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | racial bias— “Racial bias refers to favouring or providing preferential treatment to members of one racial group over another.” | |
| claim-type | mechanism— “We argue that systemic factors operating across levels — from the interpersonal to the cultural — contribute to the production and reinforcement of racial biases in children and adults.” | |
| method — evidence | — “In this Review, we examine the bidirectional relation between individual-level racial biases and broader societal systems through a systemic lens.” | |
| object of study — evidence | — “We consider the effects of five systemic factors on racial biases in the USA: power and privilege disparities, cultural narratives and values, segregated communities, shared stereotypes and nonverbal messages.” | |
| research question — evidence | — “However, this approach largely ignores the systemic nature of racial biases and the ways in which racial biases are shaped by the broader cultural systems in which people live 12 – 14 .” | |
| contribution — evidence | — “We argue that systemic factors operating across levels — from the interpersonal to the cultural — contribute to the production and reinforcement of racial biases in children and adults.” | |
| transfer | from race relations research, human development and cultural psychology: the nested-levels model of influence, imported to relate individual racial bias to the systems around it— “Models of nested levels of influence in the study of race relations 17 , human development 18 and culture 19 , 20 can be used to consider the relation between racial bias and broader systemic factors (Fig. 1 ).” | transfers[0] |
| mechanism | Children raised in an unequal society, given no systemic explanation for that inequality, internalize the existing distribution of power and privilege as legitimate— “Children who are socialized in an unequal society, without systemic explanations for why power and privilege have been concentrated among certain people, often internalize that system 34 .” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | Internalized expectations of inequality drive behaviour that maintains the system, so individual attitudes reproduce the very inequality that generated them (a self-reinforcing loop)— “These beliefs and expectations then motivate the individuals that make up the system to behave in ways that maintain the system of inequality, such that individuals’ attitudes reinforce the system of inequality that produced them.” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | Nonverbal bias propagates as an expanding transmission system: seeing biased signals creates biased attitudes, which are then expressed as biased signals that others in the social network observe and adopt— “Thus, nonverbal biases can be thought of as an expanding system of transmission wherein exposure to nonverbal biases contributes to the development of racially biased attitudes; those attitudes then manifest as biased nonverbal signals, which others within the social network will then see, leading them to develop biases, and so on 233 .” | mechanisms[2] |
| mechanism | Devaluing cultural products lets people transmit racial bias while believing they are only judging the product, hiding the bias from the person holding it— “This contribution to individual-level racial bias is particularly insidious because it creates conditions under which people can obliviously perpetuate racial biases, believing their bias to be against the cultural products they perceive as inferior rather than the people associated with the products.” | mechanisms[3] |
| mechanism | system justification: growing up inside an unequal arrangement without an explanation for it leads children and adults to conclude the arrangement is right— “Both children and adults tend to conclude that the way things are structured in society is the way they should be 35 – 42 .” | mechanisms[4] |
| mechanism | structural exposure predicts individual bias - the composition of a university, a neighbourhood's poverty rate, a community's economic mobility all track measured implicit bias— “Attending a university with few faculty members of colour, living in an area that has high poverty rates among Black residents and living in a community with low economic mobility all predict heightened implicit bias against Black people among non-Black American residents” | mechanisms[5] |
| mechanism | backlash: information that inequality is decreasing can raise bias rather than lower it— “White residents of the USA who were exposed to information about the increasing racial diversity of the USA subsequently exhibited increased bias favouring white people relative to those who were not exposed to this information 47 – 50 .” | mechanisms[6] |
| mechanism | the return path: aggregate individual bias in a county tracks institutional outcomes such as school discipline, so attitudes reconstitute the systems that produced them— “In American counties where the individual-level bias against Black people is stronger, there are larger racial disparities in school disciplinary actions, with Black students being subjected to more suspensions, expulsions, and referrals to law enforcement than white students 58 .” | mechanisms[7] |
| builds-on | Caste: The Origins Of Our Discontents— “Some of these similarities are highlighted in the book Caste: The Origins Of Our Discontents 29 — which draws parallels between the systems of oppression of Black people in the USA, Jewish people in Nazi Germany and Dalit people in India.” | claim_relations[0] |
| builds-on | prior arguments (ref. 11) that individuals and systems mutually reinforce one another in organizations and the workplace— “Similar arguments about individuals and systems mutually reinforcing one another have been made in the context of organizations and the workplace 11 .” | claim_relations[1] |
| contradicts | the individual-level tradition in the psychology of racial bias— “Historically, the field of psychology has focused on racial biases at an individual level, considering the effects of various stimuli on individual racial attitudes and biases.” | claim_relations[2] |
| extends | nested-levels models from race relations, human development and culture research— “Models of nested levels of influence in the study of race relations 17 , human development 18 and culture 19 , 20 can be used to consider the relation between racial bias and broader systemic factors (Fig. 1 ).” | claim_relations[3] |
| sense | bias - a property of a PERSON: an attitude favouring one group, measured on individuals in response to stimuli— “Historically, the field of psychology has focused on racial biases at an individual level, considering the effects of various stimuli on individual racial attitudes and biases.” | senses[0] |
| sense | bias - a property of a SYSTEM: patterns built into institutions and culture, which produce individual attitudes rather than summing them— “However, this approach largely ignores the systemic nature of racial biases and the ways in which racial biases are shaped by the broader cultural systems in which people live 12 – 14 .” | senses[1] |
| sense | level - a nested shell of context around the person: interpersonal, community, cultural, temporal— “At the innermost level are the most proximal influences on individual-level racial bias — personal and interpersonal experiences, such as socialization from caregivers and interracial friendships.” | senses[2] |
| edge | systemic factors —causes→ racial bias— “We argue that systemic factors operating across levels — from the interpersonal to the cultural — contribute to the production and reinforcement of racial biases in children and adults.” | concept_edges[0] |
| edge | power and privilege —part-of→ systemic factors— “We consider the effects of five systemic factors on racial biases in the USA: power and privilege disparities, cultural narratives and values, segregated communities, shared stereotypes and nonverbal messages.” | concept_edges[3] |
| edge | cultural narratives —part-of→ systemic factors— “We consider the effects of five systemic factors on racial biases in the USA: power and privilege disparities, cultural narratives and values, segregated communities, shared stereotypes and nonverbal messages.” | concept_edges[4] |
| for which use | limitation — the geographic scope of every claim: WE FOCUS ON THE USA BECAUSE IT IS THE CONTEXT THAT WE HAVE THE CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE TO DISCUSS AND WHERE MOST RESEARCH ... HAS BEEN CONDUCTED— “We focus on the USA because it is the context that we have the cultural knowledge to discuss and where most research on racial bias development has been conducted.” | limitations[0] |
| for which use | limitation — the completeness of the systemic account: THEY ARE CERTAINLY NOT THE ONLY SYSTEMIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE RACIAL BIASES— “Although they are certainly not the only systemic factors that influence racial biases, we focus on these five because we believe them to be particularly relevant to the development of racial biases in the contemporary USA.” | limitations[1] |
| for which use | limitation — the causal reading of the reviewed evidence: IN SOME CASES THERE IS CLEAR EVIDENCE OF THE CAUSAL CHAIN ... WHEREAS IN OTHERS, THERE MIGHT BE EVIDENCE OF AN ASSOCIATION— “In some cases, there is clear evidence of the causal chain from system to individual and from individual to system, whereas in others, there might be evidence of an association, but the direction of influence is unclear.” | limitations[2] |
| for which use | limitation — the weight of the evidence base: THE LITERATURE IN THIS AREA IS STILL RELATIVELY SPARSE— “Although there is a growing body of literature tying systemic influences to individual-level biases, the literature in this area is still relatively sparse.” | limitations[3] |
| for which use | limitation — the transfer of the framework beyond the USA: THE SYSTEMIC FACTORS THAT PERPETUATE RACIAL BIASES INTO THE PRESENT MIGHT BE SOMEWHAT DISTINCT FROM OTHER CONTEXTS— “Given this history of racism in the USA, the systemic factors that perpetuate racial biases into the present might be somewhat distinct from other contexts.” | limitations[4] |
| duplicate of | limitation — limitations[2] | limitations[5] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[2] - association rather than causal chain in places | limitations[5] |
| duplicate of | limitation — limitations[1] | limitations[6] |
| for which use | limitation — the same scope as limitations[1] - five factors chosen, not exhaustive Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| for which use | limitation — any one-directional use of this review: INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL BIASES AND BROADER SOCIETAL SYSTEMS MIGHT BE MUTUALLY REINFORCING, BUT FOR CLARITY WE TAKE THE APPROACH OF ASSESSING EACH DIRECTION OF INFLUENCE SEPARATELY - the loop is cut for exposition Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[7] |
| replication | untested | |
| limitation | Scope is restricted to the USA, chosen for the authors' cultural knowledge and the location of most existing research. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[0] |
| limitation | The five systemic factors reviewed are a selection, not an exhaustive set. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[1] |
| limitation | For part of the reviewed evidence the direction of influence between individual bias and system is not established, only association. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[2] |
| limitation | The empirical base linking systemic influences to individual-level bias is described as still thin. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[3] |
| limitation | Restricted to the USA by the authors' own statement, and the paper says the systemic factors may not transfer. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[4] |
| limitation | The causal direction is not established throughout - in places only an association is available. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[5] |
| limitation | The five factors are chosen, not exhaustive, and the authors say so. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[6] |
| limitation | Mutual reinforcement is treated as two separable directions for expositional clarity, which is an analytic simplification the paper flags. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | limitations[7] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | The review considers the effects of five systemic factors on racial bias in the USA: power and privilege disparities, cultural narratives and values, segregated communities, shared stereotypes and nonverbal messages. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | The relation runs in both directions: each of the five systemic factors shapes individual-level bias, and individual-level bias in turn shapes systems and inequalities at every nested level. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | Telling white Americans that the country is becoming more racially diverse increases, rather than decreases, their bias in favour of white people. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | Living in a state with more Black residents was associated with increased racial bias only among white residents with limited close contact with Black people. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | Colourblind ideology functions to keep policies that are formally race-neutral racially biased in their effects. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | Because the cultural products of people of colour are devalued at a societal level, individuals develop bias against those who use and produce them. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | Individual bias devalues and negatively stereotypes physical spaces occupied by people of colour, which makes those spaces less desirable to white people and so reinforces residential segregation. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[6] |
| finding | The causal effect of exposure to cultural products on racial attitudes has never been tested experimentally, which the authors identify as an open gap. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[7] |
| finding | Markers of structural inequality in a person's surroundings predict their measured implicit bias. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[8] |
| finding | Being told the country is becoming more diverse increased pro-white bias rather than reducing it. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[9] |
| finding | Aggregate individual bias tracks institutional outcomes: county-level bias predicts racial disparities in school suspensions, expulsions and police referrals. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[10] |
| finding | Greater individual anti-Black bias was associated with a lower likelihood of voting for Obama in 2008 and less support for his healthcare reform. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[11] |
| finding | The authors judge interventions aimed at individual attitudes unlikely to address the systemic causes of bias. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[12] |
| quantity | approximately 40% — share of US residents in 2020 polling who thought that paying less attention to race would improve racial inequality Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | roughly five times — Black-to-white ratio of US incarceration rates as of 2021 Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | 75% — share of neighbours who are white for the average white American, as an index of residential segregation Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | 40% — proportion of preschool children exposed to biased nonverbal signals who then copied those signals themselves Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | 67% ... less than 8% — share of South African top management positions held by white people in 2017, versus their share of the population Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| quantity | 100 times higher — the War on Drugs sentencing ratio between substances used disproportionately by Black versus white Americans Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[5] |
| quantity | 57% ... 30% — how often observers attributed their attitude towards a target to the target's own behaviour rather than to the biased treatment the target received Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[6] |
| quantity | five systemic factors — the factors the review covers: power and privilege, cultural narratives and values, segregated communities, shared stereotypes, nonverbal messages Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[7] |
| variable | systemic factors (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[0] |
| variable | individual-level racial bias (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[1] |
| definition | racial bias Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | intergroup contact Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | racial socialization Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[2] |
| definition | redlining Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| definition | racially colourblind ideology Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[4] |
| definition | eminent domain Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[5] |
| definition | manifest destiny Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[6] |
| definition | racial bias Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[7] |
| definition | the nested levels of influence Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[8] |
| definition | temporal influences Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[9] |
| key-terms | racial bias, systemic factors, nested levels of influence, individual-level, power and privilege, cultural narratives, segregated communities, shared stereotypes, nonverbal messages, implicit bias, temporal influences, cultural context |
| concept | racial bias — not defined in this paper's own words; favouring or giving preferential treatment to members of one racial group over another Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[0] |
| concept | systemic factors — not defined in this paper's own words; features of the society rather than of the person - the distribution of power, the narratives told, the segregation of places - that produce and reinforce bias Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[1] |
| concept | individual-level — not defined in this paper's own words; the unit of analysis psychology has traditionally used: one person's attitudes, measured in response to stimuli Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[2] |
| concept | nested levels of influence — not defined in this paper's own words; a framework in which the person sits inside interpersonal, community, cultural and temporal shells, each acting on the next Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[3] |
| concept | temporal influences — not defined in this paper's own words; the outermost shell: how past arrangements keep acting on people after the arrangements themselves have changed Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[4] |
| concept | power and privilege — not defined in this paper's own words; the first of the five factors - who occupies the respected roles, and what a child infers from that Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[5] |
| concept | cultural narratives — not defined in this paper's own words; the histories a society tells about itself, including which perspectives a curriculum omits Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[6] |
| concept | implicit bias — not defined in this paper's own words; bias as measured indirectly rather than reported, and the quantity that structural markers are shown to predict Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[7] |
| concept | cultural context — not defined in this paper's own words; the shell above community: the norms, values and beliefs that structure a society Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[8] |
| claim type | mechanism — a second reading reaching the same value; recorded: mechanism Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.claim_type |
| phenomenon | bidirectional relation between systemic racial inequality and individual-level racial bias — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: racial bias Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.phenomenon |
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