phenomenon · claim-type · cross-domain-transfer · mechanism · claim-relation · replication-status · limitation — grounded in the full text| phenomenon | gender gap in voting— “The analysis demonstrates that gender differences in voting behavior have been realigning in postindustrial societies.” | |
| claim-type | mechanism— “Our argument is based on a developmental theory of the gender gap suggesting that long-term structural and cultural trends, which have transformed women’s and men’s lives, have gradually produced realignment in gender politics in postindustrial societies.” | |
| method — evidence | — “For data we draw on the World Values Surveys (WVS), carried out in three waves in the early 1980s, the early 1990s, and the mid-1990s.” | |
| mechanism | Modernization converges men's and women's roles through the paid labour market, education and changed family structure, which in turn changes their political preferences— “In postindustrial societies gender roles have increasingly converged due to a structural revolution in the paid labor force, in educational opportunities for women, and in the characteristics of modern families.” | mechanisms[0] |
| mechanism | Value change — the spread of postmaterialist and egalitarian/feminist attitudes — pulls women's vote leftwards— “That is, women in advanced industrialized societies are shifting left because of a broad process of value changes, particularly the shift towards more egalitarian attitudes associated with postmaterialism and feminism.” | mechanisms[1] |
| mechanism | Generational turnover: as younger cohorts replace older ones the aggregate gap keeps moving left— “If this is a generational rather than a life-cycle effect, as seems most likely, it suggests that the process of generational turnover will probably continue to move women leftwards.” | mechanisms[2] |
| mechanism | Occupational segregation concentrates working women in low-paid and public-sector jobs, encouraging support for parties of the left— “Women’s support for parties of the left may be encouraged by pervasive patterns of horizontal and vertical occupational segregation.” | mechanisms[3] |
| extends | Inglehart (1977) and Norris (1988) predictions that women's relative conservatism would disappear— “By the 1990s these predictions appear to have been confirmed.” | claim_relations[0] |
| builds-on | Studlar, McAllister and Hayes (1998)— “What this suggests, as Studlar, McAllister and Hayes (1998) noted in their comparison of the United States, Australia, and Britain, is that the modern gender gap is more strongly the product of attitudinal rather than structural variables.” | claim_relations[1] |
| sense | gender gap - TRADITIONAL: women voting more conservatively and participating less than men, the orthodoxy the article sets out to test— “Studies carried out in many countries in previous decades found that women were more conservative than men and less likely to participate in politics.” | senses[0] |
| sense | gender gap - MODERN: women voting to the LEFT of men, the opposite sign under the same term, reported for postindustrial societies by the 1990s— “By the 1990s women voters in these nations proved significantly more leftwing than men, even after introducing a range of social controls.” | senses[1] |
| sense | sympathy for feminist ideals - operationalised as two survey items: confidence in the women's movement and attitudes towards abortion— “the size of the gender gap controlling for the effects of confidence in the women’s movement and also attitudes towards abortion, understood as key indicators of sympathy for feminist ideals” | senses[2] |
| control | structural controls were introduced and the gender gap re-estimated in each country — partial — rules out that the modern gender gap is a by-product of structural differences - education, income, labour-force participation - rather than a value shift— “The modern gender gap was maintained in the United States, France, and Germany after introducing structural controls, but it became insignificant in every country except the United States once we controlled for cultural attitudes.” | controls[0] |
| edge | traditional gender gap —contrasted-with→ modern gender gap— “Here, it is examined whether this traditional gender gap persists today, or whether gender cleavages in the electorate have converged, and whether the phenomenon of the modern gender gap, with women more left wing, has become evident elsewhere.” | concept_edges[0] |
| outcome (stated by the tagger, no quotation) | control — partial | controls[0] |
| for which use | limitation — the cross-national comparison: WE LACK EVIDENCE IN THE WORLD VALUES SURVEY FOR CONSISTENT TRENDS OVER TIME IN A WIDER RANGE OF SOCIETIES— “We lack evidence in the World Values Survey for consistent trends over time in a wider range of societies but we can compare the size and direction of the voting gap in the 1990s in the 36 countries shown in Table 3 and Figure 2.” | limitations[0] |
| for which use | limitation — the long-term secular claim: WE LACK SYSTEMATIC COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE ... FROM THE ERA PRIOR TO THE 1980S, so it is inferred rather than observed— “Although we lack systematic comparative evidence in the World Values Survey from the era prior to the 1980s, we would expect to find long-term secular trends reflected in differences between the respective age cohorts, with the younger cohort of women most strongly influenced by the transformation of sex roles in advanced industrial… | limitations[1] |
| for which use | limitation — every use of the phrase gender gap drawn from this work: THE TERM ... CONCERNS A MULTIDIMENSIONAL POLITICAL PHENOMENON, and only vote choice is measured here— “We recognize that the term “gender gap” concerns a multidimensional political phenomenon that can refer to any political differences between women and men, such as in their voting behavior, partisanship, attitudes and opinions, or civic engagement, at mass or elite levels, but the concern of this article is restricted to comparing voting… | limitations[2] |
| for which use | limitation — the generality of the realignment claim: THE PROCESS IS FAR FROM UNIFORM, PROBABLY REFLECTING PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES WITHIN EACH COUNTRY— “It should be stressed that the process is far from uniform, probably reflecting particular circumstances within each country, such as the pattern of party competition, the predominant issue agenda, and the strength of the organized women’s movement.” | limitations[3] |
| for which use | limitation — the claim that women have realigned to the left worldwide: the paper reports the modern gap in postindustrial and some West European states, and states it was not yet evident in postcommunist or developing societies— “The modern gender gap is not confined to the United States, as particularistic accounts suggest, but is also evident by the 1990s in some West European states. Nevertheless this pattern was not yet evident in postcommunist societies or developing societies” | limitations[4] |
| for which use | limitation — the feminism controls in this analysis: they are confidence in the women's movement and attitudes towards abortion, described as key indicators of sympathy for feminist ideals rather than direct measures of it— “the size of the gender gap controlling for the effects of confidence in the women’s movement and also attitudes towards abortion, understood as key indicators of sympathy for feminist ideals” | limitations[5] |
| replication | untested | |
| limitation | The survey data do not cover consistent over-time trends for most of the countries compared, so the wider comparison is cross-sectional (1990s only).— “We lack evidence in the World Values Survey for consistent trends over time in a wider range of societies but we can compare the size and direction of the voting gap in the 1990s in the 36 countries shown in Table 3 and Figure 2.” | limitations[0] |
| limitation | No systematic comparative evidence exists before the 1980s, so long-term secular change has to be inferred from age-cohort differences rather than observed directly.— “Although we lack systematic comparative evidence in the World Values Survey from the era prior to the 1980s, we would expect to find long-term secular trends reflected in differences between the respective age cohorts, with the younger cohort of women most strongly influenced by the transformation of sex roles in advanced industrial… | limitations[1] |
| limitation | The analysis covers only one dimension of a multidimensional phenomenon: vote choice, not partisanship, attitudes, or civic engagement.— “We recognize that the term “gender gap” concerns a multidimensional political phenomenon that can refer to any political differences between women and men, such as in their voting behavior, partisanship, attitudes and opinions, or civic engagement, at mass or elite levels, but the concern of this article is restricted to comparing voting… | limitations[2] |
| limitation | The realignment is uneven across countries and may reflect country-specific circumstances the theory does not model.— “It should be stressed that the process is far from uniform, probably reflecting particular circumstances within each country, such as the pattern of party competition, the predominant issue agenda, and the strength of the organized women’s movement.” | limitations[3] |
| limitation | The headline realignment is explicitly not global, although the title says global perspective: the old pattern is reported as persisting in postcommunist and developing societies. | limitations[4] |
| limitation | Sympathy for feminist ideals is measured by two proxies chosen as indicators, so the construct is interpretive rather than observed. | limitations[5] |
finding · quantity · variable · definition · key-term — grounded in the full text| finding | By the 1990s women in postindustrial societies voted significantly further to the left than men, and the difference survived a battery of social controls. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[0] |
| finding | The leftward shift did not appear in postcommunist or developing societies, where women were still voting further right than men in the mid-1990s. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[1] |
| finding | Averaged by type of society, the voting gap was +.10 (women left) in advanced industrialized democracies, -.08 in postcommunist societies and -.14 in developing societies (women right). Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[2] |
| finding | In postindustrial societies the modern gender gap survives structural controls but shrinks once cultural attitudes are added to the model. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[3] |
| finding | The gap is therefore attributed mainly to women's and men's differing value orientations — postmaterialism and support for the women's movement — rather than to differences in their lifestyles. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[4] |
| finding | Within established democracies the gap reverses across age groups: in the youngest cohort women are far to the left of men, while among the over-65s women are more conservative than men. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[5] |
| finding | Country by country, the modern gap held up under structural controls in the United States, France and Germany, but only the United States kept a significant gap after cultural attitudes were controlled. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[6] |
| finding | By the 1990s women were significantly more right wing than men in only six of 57 nations. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[7] |
| finding | In Europe the mean female ideological position moved from 5.61 in 1973 to 5.20 in 1999. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[8] |
| finding | The American gender gap is not exceptional in size; larger ideological gaps appear in Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark. Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.findings[9] |
| quantity | +.10 / –.08 / –.14 — Mean gender gap on the 10-point voting scale in advanced industrialized, postcommunist and developing societies respectively (positive = women further left) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[0] |
| quantity | r=.46 — Correlation between respondents' left-right ideological self-placement and the expert-coded left-right position of the party they intended to vote for, used as a reliability check on the voting scale Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[1] |
| quantity | six out of 57 nations — Number of countries in the 1990s where women were significantly more right wing than men on ideological self-placement Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[2] |
| quantity | fourteen countries — Number of countries in the same comparison where women were significantly more left wing than men Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[3] |
| quantity | sixty societies — Number of societies compared across the three waves of the World Values Surveys Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[4] |
| quantity | 5.61 in 1973 to 5.20 in 1999 — Mean ideological self-placement of European women on the 10-point left-right scale at the start and end of the Eurobarometer series Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[5] |
| quantity | six out of ten nations — Number of advanced industrialized countries (of the ten with a complete set of controls) where women voted significantly further left than men in the uncontrolled model Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.quantities[6] |
| variable | gender (independent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[0] |
| variable | 10-point left–right voting scale (dependent) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[1] |
| variable | cultural attitudes (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[3] |
| variable | generational cohort (moderator) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[4] |
| variable | type of society (moderator) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[5] |
| variable | religiosity (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[6] |
| variable | labor force participation (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[7] |
| variable | education (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[8] |
| variable | age (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[9] |
| variable | socioeconomic status (control) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.variables[10] |
| definition | traditional gender gap Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[0] |
| definition | modern gender gap Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[1] |
| definition | developmental theory of the gender gap Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[2] |
| definition | gender dealignment Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[3] |
| definition | ideological gap Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.definitions[4] |
| concept | traditional gender gap Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[0] |
| concept | modern gender gap Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[1] |
| concept | World Values Surveys Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | concepts[2] |
| ANOVA | Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[0] |
| difference between group means | as written: the difference between group means Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[1] |
| ordinary least squares regression | as written: ordinary least squared regression models Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[2] |
| standardized regression coefficient | as written: standardized Beta coefficients Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[3] |
| correlation r | as written: closely associated (r=.46) Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | content_tags.statistics[4] |
| claim type | mechanism — a second reading reaching the same value; recorded: mechanism Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.claim_type |
| method | comparative-survey-analysis — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: observational-study Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.method |
| phenomenon | the gender gap in voting behaviour and its reversal as societies become postindustrial — a second reading DIFFERING from the recorded value; recorded: gender gap in voting Quotation withheld — this paper is not ours to reproduce, and the page has already quoted as much of it as the rights layer allows. The tag, its field and its confidence stand; the sentence is at the publisher. | alternatives.phenomenon |
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